c:  A P T A I N fI  t N R Y B A:U  D .E  S S ilN 


tVie  ®ljroIngirj,/ 

PRINCETON.  N.  J. 


Purchased  by  the  Mary  Cheves  Dulles  Fund. 


Division 


,B33 

Section 


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■t  ■ 


Indo- China  and  its  Primitive  People 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/indochinaitsprim00baud_0 


The  Tomb  of  a Rade  Chief  decorated  with  Statues  of  his  Faithful  Women. 


Indo-China  and  its  Primitive 
People.  . . By  Captain  Henry 

Baudesson.  Translated  by  E.  Appleby  Holt. 
With  48  Illustrations  from  photographs. 


E.  P.  T>UTTON  & CO., 
NEW  YORK 


Printed  in  Great  Britain 


TO 

PROFESSOR  ANTOINE 


CABATON 


A TOKEN  OF  REVERENCE  AND  AFFECTION 


CONTENTS 


BOOK  I 

AMONG  THE  MOi 
CHAPTER  I 

AMONG  THE  MOI 

General  characteristics  of  the  Moi — A legend  as  to  their  selection  of  a home 
— The  part  played  by  ocean  currents  in  the  distribution  of  races — Had 
primitive  peoples  a sense  of  direction  f — Features  of  daily  life — The 
hut — The  village — Clothing  and  ornaments — A primitive  method  of 
kindling  a fire  ........  p.  3 

CHAPTER  II 

INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS 

Agriculture — Industries — Weaving,  iron  and  copper  mining — Commerce 
and  industrial  products — Food  supplies — Fishing — How  we  once 
fished  ivith  dynamite — Hunting — Various  methods  of  big-game  hunting 
— My  first  elephant  hunt — Some  useful  hints  to  big-game  hunters 
— Poisons — Arms  and  weapons  of  defence — The  tiger,  a dangerous 
neighbour — A bathing  tragedy  . . . . . p.  18 

CHAPTER  III 

FAMILY  LIFE 

Diseases  and  their  cure — Betrothal  and  marriage — Adultery — Divorce — 
A Moi  wedding — Birth — Childhood — The  game  of  Pig-Snatcher  p.  $2 

CHAPTER  IV 

SOCIAL  LIFE 

Property — Slavery — Utilitarian  morals — A bashful  race — The  Levirate — 
Law  and  custom — An  amateur  arbitrator — Principles  and  practice 
of  the  Ordeal  ........  p.  75 

CHAPTER  V 

RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS  AND  RITES 

Similarity  between  the  philosophical  conceptions  of  uncivilized  races — 
Most  of  the  ritual  derived  from  magic — Dualism — Private  and  public 
talismans — The  Pi — The  Legend  of  the  Dog-King — Totemism — 
Sorcery — Rebel  Moi  .......  p.  98 


vm 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  VI 

RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  {continued) 

Tribal  and  proprietary  signs — Tattooing  and  mutilation — Principles  and 
practice  of  the  taboo — Its  survival  in  modern  Europe — The  incarna- 
tion of  Spirits  in  stones,  trees  and  animals — Belief  in  the  magic  povyers 
of  the  tiger — Animal  poison — Bones  as  a charm — A protecting  ear — 
Ex-votos  offered  to  the  Spirit  of  the  tiger — Superstitions  about  monkeys 
— Hunting  rites  p.  1 1 6 

CHAPTER  VII 

RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  {continued) 

Agrarian  rites — How  Me-Sao,  King  of  the  Moi,  opens  the  jar — Rites  of 
initiation  and  “ coming  of  age  ” . . . . . I37 

CHAPTER  VIII 

BELIEFS  AND  RITES 

The  origin  and  observance  of  funeral  rites — The  ceremony  of  the  Com- 
memoration of  the  Dead — Burial  rites  and  various  methods  p.  i6i 

CHAPTER  IX 

ART  AND  CULTURE 

The  relation  between  the  evolution  of  artistic  expression  and  social  develop- 
ment as  illustrated  by  the  Moi  and  the  Laotians — The  intimate  con- 
nection between  Music,  Dance  and  Stage — A Moi  orchestra  and  war 
dance — Deficiencies  in  the  sense  of  sound  due  to  lack  of  artistic 
education — The  effect  of  a gramophone — Predominance  of  the  analytical 
over  the  synthetic  faculty — Exaggerated  respect  for  form — Im- 
pression produced  by  the  stereoscope — Decorative  arts — Sports,  fetes, 
and  public  amusements — Extensive  use  of  marks  for  ritual  and  other 
purposes  . . . . . . . . . p.  177 

CHAPTER  X 

INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 

The  relations  between  the  development  of  language  and  social  evolution — 
An  enigmatic  system  of  writing — Knotted  cords,  notches  in  sticks 
and  their  accessories — The  evolution  of  literature  among  primitive 
races — Length  of  memory  among  races  that  have  no  written  records 
— Historical  value  of  legends  transmitted  by  oral  tradition — Nature  of 
the  more  usual  alterations  to  be  met  with  in  documentary  folklore — 
The  most  general  legends,  fables  and  proverbs  of  the  Moi  . p.  193 

BOOK  II 

THE  CHAM 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  CHAM 

General  characteristics  of  the  Cham — A Mphammedan  group — Its  place 
among  ancient  civilizations — Social  life — Dress  and  ornaments — The 
calendar — Rites  accompanying  the  construction  of  a house,  a cart,  and 
a junk — Agriculture  and  industry — Medicines — The  use  of  narcotics 
by  criminals  to  stupefy  their  victims  . ...  p.  225 


CONTENTS 


IX 


CHAPTER  II 

SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE 

Traces  of  the  matriarchal  system  in  the  conception  of  the  family — The 
“ Karoh  ” — Circumcision — Precautions  against  seduction — Rites  in- 
cidental to  betrothal,  marriage,  birth  and  infancy  . . p.  248 

CHAPTER  III 

RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

The  beginnings  of  Islam  in  Indo-China — Rites  which  accompany  initiation 
into  the  priestly  caste — The  gods  of  Cham — Temples — Resemblance 
between  the  architecture  of  the  Cham  and  that  of  the  Kmer — Phallic 
rites — A visit  to  a royal  sepulchre  .....  p.  266 

CHAPTER  IV 

RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  {continued) 

Agrarian  rites — Tabooed  ricefields — Secret  ploughing — Sleeping  rice — 
Various  uses  of  eaglewood — How  the  Cham  procure  it — Public  festivals 


and  holy  days  ........  p.  297 

CHAPTER  V 

RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  {continued) 

Burial  rites — Philology — Legends  and  fables  . . . p.  310 

Bibliography  .........  p.  325 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


The  Tomb  of  a Rade  Chief.  .... 

. Frontispiece 

A Moi  Maiden  with  enlarged  Ears 

. Facing  page 

16 

A Cham  Chief  and  his  Daughter  .... 

• 3) 

16 

Laotian  Barque  under  full  sail  .... 

• >3 

17 

A Moi  Farmer  at  work  ..... 

• 3) 

‘7 

Fishing  with  Dynamite  ..... 

• 33 

26 

A Floating  Village  ...... 

• 3) 

26 

A Typical  Village  in  Laos  ..... 

• 33 

27 

Primitive  Irrigation  in  Laos.  .... 

• 33 

27 

Birth  Ceremonies  ...... 

• 33 

54 

The  Wife  of  a Moi  Chief  ..... 

• 33 

55 

A Little  Moi  Family  ...... 

• 33 

55 

A Sorcerer  performing  the  Marriage  Ceremony 

• 33 

64 

X 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Children  scrambling  over  the  Remains  of  the  Marriage 
Feast  ......... 

A Little  Kha  ........ 

Our  Native  Prisoners  ....... 

The  Village  Musician  serenading  a Young  Couple  . 

A Hut  of  Propitiation  ...... 

Tombs  fenced  with  Bamboo  and  decorated  with 
Elephants’  Tusks  ....... 

Woven  Bamboo  Baskets  used  to  carry  Offerings  to  the 
Priests  ......... 

Memorial  Stone  erected  to  a Tiger  .... 

A Hunting  Party  ....... 

An  Elephant  and  his  Driver  ..... 

The  Festival  of  the  Dead  : carrying  home  the  Sacrificial 
Buffalo  ......... 

The  Festival  of  the  Dead  : Poles  erected  for  the  Cele- 
bration ......... 

Funeral  Rites  : the  Body  in  a Coffin  made  from  the 
Hollowed  Trunk  of  a Tree  ..... 

Funeral  Rites : the  Body  by  its  weight  has  indicated  its 
wish  to  be  buried  in  this  spot  ..... 

A Medical  Examination  ...... 

Looking  through  the  Stereoscope.  .... 

Three  Boys  of  our  Native  Guard  ..... 

A Court  of  Trial  on  an  Annamese  Stage 
A Group  of  Amateur  Actors  in  Annam. 

A Mandarin  of  Annam  ...... 

Royal  Elephants  in  Cambodia  ..... 

A Buddhist  Procession  ...... 

Image  of  a Departed  Saint  in  a Phallic  Temple 
Statues  erected  to  the  Dead  in  Laos  .... 

Shrine  of  a Laotian  Priest  ...... 

The  Interior  of  the  Shrine  ...... 

Statue  of  an  Ancient  King  of  Cambodia 

Statue  of  an  Ancient  Queen  of  Cambodia 

An  Old  Cham  Temple  in  a Cambodian  Forest 

The  House  of  a Cham  Aristocrat ..... 

A Cottage  Home  in  Cambodia  ..... 

Cremation  in  Cambodia  : the  Head  of  the  Procession  . 
A Catafalque  upon  which  several  Bodies  are  carried  away 
for  Cremation  ....... 

The  Hearse  and  Bearers  at  an  Annamese  Funeral  . 

The  Altar  of  his  Ancestors,  which  accompanies  the 
Deceased 


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FOREWORD 


No  nation  which  desires  worthily  to  fulfil  the  r6le  of  Pro- 
tector to  the  barbarous  races  on  whom  it  proposes  to  confer 
the  benefits  of  civilization  can  afford  to  remain  ignorant 
of  their  ways  of  life  and  thought.  The  interchange  of  ideas 
is  as  essential  to  successful  colonization  as  the  exchange  of 
commodities.  Unfortunately  the  path  to  knowledge  is 
beset  with  difficulties.  In  the  first  place  the  savage  or 
semi-savage  is  unable  to  apply  the  method  of  synthesis  to 
those  of  his  institutions  which  seem  founded  on  custom. 
He  cannot  tell  us  which  of  his  usages  have  been  borrowed 
or  imposed  from  outside.  Further,  as  a rule,  it  seems  im- 
possible to  find  any  medium  of  communication  between 
his  language  and  ours,  so  that  any  attempt  at  cross-examina- 
tion is  met  by  the  sorry  pretence  that  our  questions  “ make 
his  head  ache.” 

During  the  period  covered  by  the  geodetical  and  topo- 
graphical surveys  which  preceded  the  construction  of  the 
Trans-Indo-Chinese  railway,  the  members  of  the  mission 
to  which  I was  attached  lived  for  years  among  the  natives 
upon  terms  of  the  greatest  familiarity.  We  saw  them  in 
their  homes,  at  their  work  and  recreations,  and  we  can 
at  least  claim  that  we  obtained  our  knowledge  at  first  hand. 

I have  not  hesitated  throughout  this  book  to  record  the 
conclusions  of  my  colleagues  and  to  compare  or  contrast 
them  with  my  own  for  the  sake  of  the  light  they  may  throw 
upon  each  other. 


FOREWORD 


xii 

I have  analysed  the  rites  and  superstitions  which  came 
to  my  notice  with  a mind  unhampered  by  obsession  or  pre- 
judice. If  I have  seemed  to  dwell  too  fondly  on  analogous 
ceremonies  among  other  peoples  and  in  other  days  it  is 
only  because  I wish  to  arrive  at  the  broad  principles  which 
seem  to  me  to  underly  all  these  phenomena,  principles  which 
are  as  immutable  as  human  nature  itself. 


BOOK  1 

AMONG  THE  MOl 


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Indo-China  and  its  Primitive 
People 

CHAPTER  I 

AMONG  THE  MOI 

General  characteristics  of  the  Moi — A legend  as  to  their  selection  of  a 
home — The  part  played  by  ocean  currents  in  the  distribution  of  races 
— Had  primitive  peoples  a sense  of  direction  ? — Features  of  daily  life 
— The  hut — The  village — Clothing  and  ornaments — A primitive 
method  of  kindling  a fire. 

half-civilized  races  who  inhabit  the  moun- 
tains and  uplands  of  Indo-China  are  known 
by  different  names  among  their  neighbours.  The 
Birmans  call  them  “ Karens,”  the  Laotians,  “ Kha,” 
the  Cambodians,  “ Stieng,”  or  “ Pnong,”  the  An- 
namites,  “ Man,”  or  “ Moi.”  “ Moi,”  which  can 
be  translated  by  “ savage,”  is  perhaps  the  most 
convenient  label  for  the  whole  complex  of  these 
primitive  folk. 

Their  number  is  not  capable  of  exact  computation 
but  probably  approaches  400,000,  divided  between 
tribes  of  different  names.  They  are  to  be  found 
scattered  between  the  eleventh  and  the  twentieth 

I* 


3 


4 


AMONG  THE  MOI 


degrees  of  latitude,  from  the  frontiers  of  China  to 
the  boundaries  of  Cambodia  and  Cochin-China. 

From  the  earliest  times  they  have  made  their 
homes  in  the  wooded  uplands  at  an  altitude  which 
secures  them  from  the  fear  of  inundation.  Their 
love  of  mountain  and  forest  is  a primitive  and  un- 
changeable instinct  and  all  attempts  to  acclimatize 
them  to  the  plains  have  ended  in  failure.  Further, 
this  instinct  is  reinforced  by  their  religious  beliefs 
and  their  respect  for  ancestral  tradition.  According 
to  a charming  legend  this  domain  was  the  gift  of  Eve 
herself. 

“ The  first  human  family  had  offspring  so  numerous 
that  the  land  of  their  birth  could  no  longer  sustain 
them.  The  mother  resolved  that  they  should  scatter 
to  people  other  portions  of  the  earth.  Before  the 
separation  she  called  them  all  together  for  the  last 
time  and  made  a great  feast  in  their  honour.  All 
did  credit  to  her  bounty  with  the  exception  of  one, 
who  took  nothing  but  some  red  pimento. 

“ This  self-restraint  was  not  lost  on  Eve,  She 
recommended  those  of  her  sons  who  appreciated  good 
cheer  to  share  the  fertile  plains,  and  giving  a bow  and 
arrows  to  her  sober  guest,  promised  him  the  kingdom 
of  the  mountains  where  the  beasts  rove  the  forests. 

“ He  was  the  father  of  the  Moi.  His  descendants 
share  his  frugality,  and,  like  his,  their  wants  are 
few.” 

These  characteristics  distinguish  them  to-day. 
Our  first  discovery  on  arrival  among  them  was  that 


AMONG  THE  MO  I 


5 


the  use  of  money  is  unknown.  They  value  an  empty 
bottle  more  highly  than  a piastre,  and  if  by  chance 
they  accept  some  such  coin  it  is  only  to  cut  it  in  pieces 
for  an  ornament.  Though  their  disposition  is 
generally  peaceful,  some  tribes  are  extremely  jealous 
of  their  independence  and  receive  an  intruder, 
however  innocent,  with  showers  of  arrows.  In  this, 
as  in  all  other  respects,  the  people  reflect  the  character 
of  their  surroundings. 

As  the  national  costume  consists  of  the  absence  of  it 
there  is  no  obstacle  to  the  observation  of  their 
physical  forms.  The  European  on  his  first  arrival 
in  this  country  will  think  himself  in  a museum  of 
classical  statuary  ! Simplicity,  harmony,  virility  and 
grace  are  all  exhibited  in  perfect  combination. 

An  average  figure  measures  five  feet  five  inches  in 
height.  Few  of  the  natives  are  more  than  five  feet 
nine  inches,  or  less  than  five  feet  one  inch.  The  torso 
is  faultless,  the  line  of  the  loins  elegant.  Sometimes 
the  lower  limbs  are  rather  frail.  The  big  toe,  while 
preserving  its  prehensile  faculty  (the  feature  of  all 
races  of  the  far  East),  is  not  detached  from  the 
other  toes.  In  this  respect  the  Moi  differ  from  the 
Annamites,  who  have  gained  the  nickname  of 
“ Giao-Chi  ” (detached  toe). 

The  adipose  tissue  is  so  fine  that  obesity  is  rare. 
Generally  speaking  the  skin  is  of  the  colour  of  earth 
and  varies  between  reddish  brown  and  dark  yellow. 
It  has  a characteristic  odour  resembling  that  of 
a wild  beast  in  good  condition.  There  is  an 


6 


AMONG  THE  MOI 


abundance  of  coarse  black  hair,  which  is  generally 
rolled  up  in  a knot  at  the  back  and  fastened  with 
a comb  or  band  of  stuff.  In  case  of  illness  the 
patient  lets  his  hair  fall  loose  to  conceal  his 
face.  The  forehead  is  low  and  narrow  and  some- 
times terminates  in  a point.  The  expression  of  the 
eyes,  which  are  frequently  oblique,  is  one  of  fearless 
frankness.  The  thick  chin  is  the  characteristic  prog- 
nathous feature.  The  lips  are  fleshy  and  colourless. 
The  prominence  of  the  cheek-bones  give  the  face  the 
appearance  of  a pentagon  with  the  chin  as  its  apex. 
The  long  and  narrow  skull  places  the  type  among  the 
dolichocephalic  races.*  These  are  the  broad 
characteristics  of  all  branches  of  the  Indonesian  race 
and  are  especially  to  be  remarked  among  the  peoples 
of  the  Asiatic  archipelago,  the  Battaks  of  Sumatra, 
the  Dyaks  of  Borneo  and  the  Alfurs  of  the  Celebes, 
who  show  the  least  alteration  from  the  original  type. 

It  is  well  known  that  these  primitive  peoples  were 
aware  of  the  existence  of  ocean  currents  and  used 
them  for  their  own  purposes.  No  other  theory  can 
account  for  the  distribution  of  the  Malayo-Polynesian 
races  among  the  swarm  of  islands,  some  of  them 
hundreds  of  leagues  apart.  It  demonstrates  beyond 
doubt  the  importance  of  the  influence  of  currents 
on  the  dispersion  of  the  human  race  over  the  surface 
of  the  globe. 

• According  to  the  measurements  of  Dr.  Noel  Bernard  the  cephalic  index 
of  the  living  male  is  76.  The  transverse  nasal  index  varies  between  84 
and  95. 


AMONG  THE  MOI 


7 


The  existence  of  a large  number  of  legends  common 
to  the  two  peoples  reinforces  the  physiological 
resemblance  between  the  Moi  and  the  primitive 
races  of  the  Malay  Archipelago.  The  folklore  of 
all  of  them  speaks  of  the  existence  of  human  beings 
reputed  to  have  had  a tail  like  a monkey’s,  and, 
what  is  even  more  extraordinary,  a razor-edged 
membrane  on  the  forearm  which  was  used  to  cut 
down  branches  obstructing  their  path. 

Curiously  enough  Borneo  possesses  a people,  the 
Murut,  who  habitually  wear  the  skin  of  a long-tailed 
monkey.  At  a distance  this  appendage  seems  to 
belong  to  the  wearer  rather  than  to  the  garment. 

In  the  same  way  it  may  be  that  the  custom  of 
carrying  a wooden  knife,  practised  by  forest-roving 
peoples,  is  responsible  for  the  illusion  which  confuses 
the  weapon  with  the  arm  which  wields  it. 

The  Moi  have  a wonderful  memory  for  places 
and  a marked  sense  of  direction.  The  latter  faculty 
is  attributed  mainly  to  a peculiarly  highly-developed 
sensibility  to  physical  contact.  Like  all  peoples 
who  spend  most  of  their  time  in  the  open  air  they  are 
constantly  noting  the  direction  of  the  wind.  They 
know  the  exact  hour  at  which,  according  to  the 
season,  the  wind  will  rise  or  fall.  However  light,  a 
breeze  will  induce  a sensation  of  freshness  immedi- 
ately recorded  by  their  bodies,  especially  when  moist 
with  exertion.  As  they  walk  or  run  they  note  care- 
fully every  movement  which  obstacles  oblige  them  to 
make.  According  to  Doctor  Ouzilleau,  this  sixth 


8 


AMONG  THE  MOI 


sense  is  localized  in  the  ampullae  of  the  semicircular 
canals.  A movement  of  the  head  causes  the  dis- 
placement of  the  endolymph  which  acts  on  the 
auditory  nerves. 

Further,  the  Moi  possess  keen  vision  and  a highly- 
developed  sense  of  smell  which  bring  to  their  notice 
objects  which  would  remain  unobserved  by  Europeans. 
A small  drop  of  blood  is  on  a leaf.  It  is  the  evacua- 
tion of  a wild  boar  whose  lair  is  close  at  hand. 

As  is  well  known,  instinct  prompts  almost  all  the 
actions  of  the  semi-savage.  Accordingly  the  psy- 
chology of  the  Moi  is  not  easy  to  describe.  Is  he 
capable  of  altruism,  pity,  or  gratitude  .?  With  few 
exceptions  these  virtues  are  almost  completely  un- 
known. But  he  will  learn  them,  like  anyone  else,  as 
soon  as  civilization  has  given  him  more  favourable 
conditions  than  under  his  present  precarious  existence. 
To-day  he  falls  an  easy  victim  to  injustice,  intrigue 
and  exaction.  So  if  Europeans  arrive  in  force  they 
are  treated  as  an  enemy  to  be  feared  and  therefore 
worthy  of  respect,  but  a casual  foreigner  may  easily 
pay  for  his  rashness  with  his  life. 

Like  all  men  of  weak  character,  the  Moi  is  very 
revengeful  and  awaits  with  patience  the  day  of 
redress.  Months  and  years  may  pass  without  effacing 
the  least  detail  of  his  wrong.  I was  frequently  called 
upon  to  compose  their  quarrels  and  it  was  seldom 
that  the  injury  was  not  one  of  long  standing. 

“ But  why,”  I asked.  “ wait  so  long  before  taking 
action  ? ” 


AMONG  THE  MOl 


9 


“ I had  other  things  to  do,”  came  the  answer 

“ What  other  things,  you  idler  ? ” 

“ Oh,  invitations  to  share  a flask  of  spirits  of  rice 
or  a fat  pig.” 

Nothing,  not  even  the  most  imperious  necessity, 
can  overcome  their  inveterate  laziness. 

I shall  never  forget  the  curious  impression  pro- 
duced on  me  by  my  first  entry  into  a Moi  village. 
The  village  in  question  was  Dran  on  the  Da-Nhim, 
whose  narrow  valley  marks  the  outposts  of  the  great 
Annamite  chain.  Five  or  six  straw  huts  had  been 
erected  on  stakes  some  ten  feet  above  the  earth,  less 
to  avoid  dampness  than  to  secure  immunity  from  the 
raids  of  wild  beasts. 

Some  women  were  pounding  paddy  (a  preparation 
of  rice)  for  the  evening  meal  in  mortars  of  ironwood. 
The  measured  beat  of  a metronome  and  the  regular 
thuds  of  the  pestles  set  the  time  for  the  wailing  chant 
with  which  the  women  beguiled  their  work.  On 
seeing  me  they  looked  up  startled.  A single  piece 
of  flimsy  cloth  draped  from  the  waist  to  the  knee 
revealed  the  outline  of  many  a full  and  graceful 
thigh  and  emphasized  rather  than  concealed  their 
sinuous  movements.  The  children  played  around 
or  pretended  to  help  in  lifting  the  heavy  pestles 

At  the  top  of  a pole  a rude  figure  had  been  carved 
of  the  genius  of  the  village  armed  with  a murderous- 
looking  crossbow.  He  was  the  tutelary  deity  of  the 
place. 

The  supports  of  the  houses  are  built  of  ironwood, 


10 


AMONG  THE  MOI 


the  other  portions  being  of  plaited  bamboo  sticks. 
The  roof  is  open  to  the  sky  and  overhangs  both  the 
farmyard  and  the  pigsty.  We  had  no  difficulty  in 
conjuring  up  the  discomforts  that  awaited  us  should 
we  ever  be  compelled  to  lodge  in  such  a place.  The 
thin  wattled  walls  would  not  spare  us  the  least  noise 
nor  the  slightest  odour. 

My  unwonted  appearance  still  continued  to  excite 
demonstrations  of  alarm,  but  it  seems  my  beard  was 
mainly  responsible  for  the  indiscriminate  flight  which 
ensued.  One  old  woman  only  was  brave  enough  to 
remain  seated  in  her  doorway.  I asked  her  for  per- 
mission to  inspect  her  dwelling,  accompanying  my 
request  with  a gift  of  a large  packet  of  tobacco.  She 
acceded,  not  without  hesitation  and  a look  of  infinite 
distrust  in  her  eyes.  A rude  wooden  approach  with 
apologies  for  steps  led  up  to  the  interior.  The  rooms, 
one  of  which  is  assigned  to  each  distinct  family,  were 
about  the  size  of  a horse-box,  but  a special  apartment 
was  reserved  for  strangers  and  solemn  occasions  such 
as  a general  reunion.  The  hearth,  raised  a few  inches 
above  the  level  of  the  floor,  consisted  of  a platform 
on  which  three  fires  were  burning  and  an  appetizing 
and  harmonious  murmur  proceeded  from  three  pots 
in  which  rice,  the  evening  meal,  and  the  food  for  the 
pigs  were  being  prepared.  There  was  no  chimney, 
for  the  duty  of  the  smoke  is  to  keep  off  the  mosquitoes, 
which  are  such  a plague  in  these  regions.  Accord- 
ingly every  object  in  the  place  was  covered  with  a 
thick  layer  of  soot,  and  no  window  was  to  be  seen. 


AMONG  THE  MOI 


II 


The  inhabitants  of  this  particular  village  were 
poor  and  the  huts  were  very  small,  but  in  some  of  the 
more  fortunate  villages  the  houses  sometimes  attain 
a length  of  two  hundred  yards. 

Huge  blocks  of  wood  served  as  beds  to  a people 
usually  too  tired  to  be  critical.  The  walls  of  the 
partitions  were  hung  with  a medley  of  gongs,  tom- 
toms, weapons  and  domestic  utensils.  The  spirit 
flask,  without  which  no  family  celebration  is  complete, 
was  suspended  from  a post  adorned  with  rude  carving. 

The  frightened  inhabitants  eyed  us  askance  and 
behaved  like  whipped  curs.  The  children  squalled 
and  hid  under  any  convenient  object,  nor  could  1 
gain  their  confidence  by  emptying  my  pockets  of  all 
the  tempting  trifles  I had  brought  with  me  for  the 
purpose.  ^ 

Seen  from  a distance  there  was  nothing  to  point  to 
the  presence  of  a village.  It  was  perched  on  the  side 
of  a ravine  with  the  forest  behind  it,  and  thick  brush- 
wood in  front  protected  it  from  the  gaze  of  the  inquisi- 
tive. The  only  entrance,  known  to  the  initiated  / 
alone,  was  that  furnished  by  two  narrow  passages. 
Even  when  the  entrance  has  been  found,  another 
dark  passage  has  to  be  traversed  which  is  designed 
for  easy  defence  in  case  of  attack.  A small  number 
of  determined  warriors  would  be  quite  sufficient 
to  repel  invaders. 

The  open  space  in  the  centre  of  the  village  was 
adorned  with  two  public  buildings,  a large  hut 
reserved  for  the  boys  who  had  just  attained  the 


12 


AMONG  THE  MOI 

age  of  puberty  and  another  which  contained  the  last 
harvest.  The  door  of  this  public  granary  was  secured 
in  a manner  which  demonstrated  to  perfection  the 
naive  simplicity  of  these  folk.  The  lock  consisted  of 
a rattan  thread  passed  through  an  empty  egg-shell. 
Of  course  it  was  impossible  to  touch  the  thread 
without  breaking  the  shell,  and  as  all  are  equally 
interested  in  the  preservation  of  the  precious  grain 
supply,  each  man  thus  became  policeman  to  his 
neighbour. 

K The  Moi  is  not  nomadic  by  nature,  but  moves 
I his  habitation  periodically  as  soon  as  he  has  exhausted 
the  natural  resources  of  the  soil  he  occupies.  Other 
causes  of  this  periodical  exodus  are  serious  mis- 
fortunes, such  as  a fire,  an  epidemic,  or  unpleasantly 
frequent  raids  by  the  tiger.  Such  mishaps  are 
invariably  attributed  by  the  Moi  to  the  evil  influence 
of  the  genius  of  the  place.  To  dispute  the  possession 
of  the  ground  with  so  powerful  a divinity  would 
be  sheer  madness,  and  accordingly  he  yields  with 
grace  and  betakes  himself  elsewhere  without  regret. 

The  choice  of  the  next  habitation  is  not  a mere 
matter  of  chance.  The  Geomancer  is  called  in  to 
consult  the  omens,  and  no  selection  is  made  until 
after  ripe  reflection. 

But  I am  forgetting  the  mild  adventure  which 
was  the  occasion  for  these  general  observations. 
After  some  time  I became  aware  that  my  visit  could 
not  be  prolonged  without  a breach  of  etiquette  and 
that  I was  trespassing  on-  the  time  of  my  hostess. 


AMONG  THE  MOI 


13 


She  herself  recalled  me  to  good  manners  by  resuming 
her  multifarious  household  duties.  Accordingly  I 
bade  her  farewell  and  left  her  surrounded  by  a 
crowd  of  the  feathered  tribe  who  assembled  in 
answer  to  her  guttural  cry  of  “ loc-loc,”  the  usual 
signal  for  a generous  distribution  of  maize. 

The  national  costume  is  marked  by  an  almost 
evangelical  simplicity.  The  men  may  truly  be 
described  as  clothed  in  sunbeams,  for  a flimsy  piece 
of  cloth  draping  the  waist  can  hardly  be  dignified 
with  the  name  of  dress.  A knife  in  a leather  or 
wooden  sheath  is  the  only  weapon  carried,  though 
another  small  knife  is  frequently  fastened  in  the 
hair,  which  is  twisted  into  a knot  and  secured  by 
a comb.  The  women  have  a clinging  skirt,  w'hich 
does  full  justice  to  their  graceful  figures.  The  bust 
is  seldom  covered  at  all,  but  in  cold  weather  a large 
piece  of  cloth  is  draped  round  the  waist.  Both 
sexes  sometimes  wear  a rough  cloak  trimmed  at 
the  edge  with  a variegated  fringe,  but  in  spite  of 
such  precautions  they  are  very  liable  to  affection^ 
of  the  throat. 

The  chief  peculiarity,  how'ever,  which  distinguishes 
them  from  the  other  groups  of  Indo-China  is  their 
inordinate  love  of  personal  decoration.  The  passion 
for  finery  gives  rise  to  the  most  embittered  rivalry 
among  the  women,  and  takes  many  curious  forms, 
such  as  the  artificial  elongation  of  the  lobe  of  the 
ear,  in  which  various  ornaments  are  introduced. 
This  painful  process  begins  in  infancy,  when  the 


H 


AMONG  THE  MOI 


ears  are  pierced  with  a sharpened  bamboo  rod.  A 
wooden  ring  is  inserted  in  the  hole  thus  made,  and 
weights  hung  from  it,  at  first  small,  then  increasing 
in  size.  The  lobe,  unnaturally  distended,  some- 
times reaches  the  shoulder,  in  which  case  it  is 
accounted  a feature  of  the  greatest  beauty,  and  a 
husband  with  every  talent  and  virtue  is  assured  to 
its  fortunate  possessor.  But  it  is  of  prime  impor- 
tance that  the  ear  should  remain  unbroken.  Should 
the  skin  give  way,  the  two  hanging  pieces  will  be 
an  eternal  reproach.  No  husband  will  w^ant  a 
woman  thus  degraded,  and  a hopeless  spinsterhood 
will  be  her  lot  in  life. 

The  men  are  addicted  to  the  same  practice,  but 
with  rather  more  discretion.  They  confined  them- 
selves to  filling  the  holes  in  their  ears  with  our  cham- 
pagne corks,  which  were  quite  at  a premium  on  the 
market  and  shared  the  honours  with  our  boxes  of 
Swedish  matches.  Sometimes,  too,  their  taste  turned 
to  an  ivory  serviette  ring  or  even  a simple  drawing 
pencil.  Another  fashionable  masculine  ornament  is 
a brass  collar,  consisting  of  a number  of  spiral  rings. 
We  never  satisfied  ourselves  as  to  w'hether  this  was 
pure  decoration  or  served  some  ulterior  purpose, 
such  as  protection  against  affections  of  the  throat. 

Copper  and  brass  bangles  adorned  the  wrists  and 
ankles,  but  he  who  wished  to  touch  the  supreme 
height  of  fashion  wrapped  his  head  in  one  of  the  towels 
with  which  we  rewarded  our  more  industrious  coolies. 

I brought  from  Paris  a supply  of  beads,  in  the  hope 


AMONG  THE  MOI 


IS 


of  finding  them  useful  as  a medium  of  exchange. 
To  my  surprise  the  natives  took  no  interest  in  them 
at  all  and  they  proved  almost  worthless.  The  Moi, 
like  the  European,  follows  the  caprice  of  fashion, 
and  our  beads,  it  seemed,  were  too  heavy  and  not 
gay  enough  for  his  taste.  Besides,  they  were  not 
the  mode  of  the  moment. 

It  was  thus  sufficiently  demonstrated  that  the 
wearing  of  clothes  is  not  even  essential  for  the  display 
of  feminine  vanity  and  coquetry.  Artifice  can 
dispense  with  clothing,  and  if  the  sexes  in  this  strange 
land  attract  each  other  by  means  that  seem  curious 
and  unaccountable  to  us,  the  end  in  view  is  always 
and  among  all  peoples  the  same,  the  continuance 
of  the  race. 

It  must  be  lemembered,  too,  that  the  develop- 
ment of  a fashion  is  similar  to  the  development  of 
a living  organism.  A certain  form  of  dress  or  style 
of  decoration  undergoes  successive  transformations, 
the  ^stages  being  generally  exaggeration,  diminution 
and  ultimate  disappearance.  For  illustration  we 
need  go  no  further  afield  than  the  recent  vagaries 
of  fashion  in  Europe  which  seem  to  oscillate  between 
the  bell  and  the  asparagus,  but  perhaps  a more 
striking  example  is  the  long,  pointed  shoes  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  At  first  the  points  were  quite  reason- 
ably short.  Then  Httle  by  little  each  man  tried  to 
sort  himself  out  of  the  common  ruck  of  his  neighbours 
by  having  longer  points,  and  after  about  a century 
the  fashion  culminated  in  the  absurd  extravagance 


i6 


AMONG  THE  MOI 


of  the  shoe  with  points  long  enough  to  be  drawn 
upwards  and  fastened  to  the  knee.  The  mode  first 
saw  the  light  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century 
and  disappeared  abruptly  in  1428.  The  same 
evolution  can  be  traced  in  the  progress  of  the  ruff 
of  the  fifteenth  century  and  the  crinoline  of  the 
nineteenth. 

It  is  at  least  open  to  belief  that  ethnical  trans- 
formations are  governed  by  similar  laws.  This 
distension  of  the  lobe  must  be  traced  to  the  practice 
of  continually  adding  to  the  number  of  ornaments 
with  which  the  ear  was  overloaded. 

V 

Every  individual  tends  to  overrate  the  feature 
which  is  considered  the  characteristic  of  his  race. 
“ Le  beau  pour  le  crapaud  c’est  sa  crapaude,”  said 
Voltaire,  and  the  natural  instinct  of  the  savage  is 
to  exaggerate  what  he  regards  as  the  most  worthy 
of  admiration.  This  instinct  is  indubitably  respon- 
sible for  most  of  the  mutilation  practised  by  primitive 
peoples.  Thus  the  negresses  of  Afriea  produce  an 
artificial  elongation  of  the  nipple  by  the  sting  of  a 
certain  insect,  and  the  platyrrhine  Malays  make  their 
flat  noses  even  flatter,  while  the  Persians  take  the 
most  elaborate  pains  to  induce  an  extreme  hook  on 
a nose  already  aquiline.  This  theory  of  exaggeration 
inherent  in  our  nature  can  alone  explain  certain 
customs  which  are*  otherwise  unaccountable. 

I ought  perhaps,  before  leaving  the  subject,  to 
enumerate  three  other  methods  of  decoration 
practised  by  the  leaders  of  fashion  among  the  Moi. 


A Moi  Maiden  with  Enlarged  Ears. 


A Cham  Chief  and  his  Daughter, 


\To  jacs  p,  i6. 


Laotian  Barque  under  Full  Sail. 


A Moi  Farmer  at  work. 


[To  face  p.  17. 


AMONG  THE  MOI 


17 


The  women  powder  their  hair  with  an  odorous 
substance  obtained  from  the  berries  of  the  vetiver. 
Both  men  and  women  smear  their  teeth  with  a kind 
of  lacquer  to  protect  the  enamel  from  the  action  of 
lime,  the  principal  ingredient  of  the  betel  leaf. 

Finally  the  society  ladies  dye  their  nails  a vivid 
vermilion  with  the  sap  of  the  plant  “ Semrang.” 

As  I said  above,  our  matches  soon  went  to  a 
premium  as  a medium  of  exchange,  but  the  Moi 
already  employed  two  methods  of  kindling  a fire. 
One  was  by  striking  a flint  against  a piece  of  pyrite 
of  iron,  the  other  by  simply  rubbing  together  two 
pieces  of  wood.  The  process  is  as  follows.  A very 
dry  bamboo  is  split  at  one  end  for  about  five  inches 
of  its  .length.  The  two  sections  are  kept  apart  by 
the  insertion  of  a wooden  wedge.  In  this  way  a 
rude  ventilating  chimney  is  made  under  which  the 
operator  piles  up  some  dead  leaves,  bamboo  cuttings 
and  moss.  He  now  passes  a long  cane  under  the 
apparatus  (which  he  keeps  steady  with  his  foot)  and 
rubs  it  rapidly  backwards  and  forwards  until  a spark 
appears,  which  is  usually  within  a minute.  The 
movement  closely  resembles  that  of  sawing. 

This  last  method  is  only  practised  in  the  bush, 
for  in  the  villages  the  fires  are  carefully  preserved 
under  the  ashes  and  seldom  allowed  to  go  out.  This 
preservation  of  fire  is  a phenomenon  which 
characterizes  all  primitive  peoples  in  every  clime. 


CHAPTER  II 


INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS 

Agriculture — Industries — Weaving,  iron  and  copper-mining — Commerce 
and  industrial  products- — Food  supplies — Fishing — How  we  once 
fished  with  dynamite — Hunting — Various  methods  of  big-game  hunting 
— My  first  elephant  hunt — Some  useful  hints  to  big-game  hunters 
— Poisons — Arms  and  weapons  of  defence — The  tiger,  a dangerous 
neighbour — A bathing  tragedy. 

^HE  principal  industry  of  the  Moi  is  the 
cultivation  of  rice.  The  method  adopted, 
however,  is  unlike  that  of  the  Annamites  of  the 
plains.  Instead  of  cultivating  a ricefield  by  con- 
tinuous irrigation  which  produces  three  crops  a 
year,  the  Moi  wait  until  November,  the  end  of  the 
rainy  season.  They  then  clear  a portion  of  the 
forest  large  enough  to  raise  a crop  for  the  entire 
population  of  the  village.  In  April  they  set  fire 
to  the  fallen  trunks  which  the  sun  has  dried.  For 
several  days  the  whole  mountain  is  illuminated  by 
these  immense  braziers  and  the  crackling  of  the 
timbers  can  be  heard  for  miles  around.  Finally 
the  ground  is  covered  with  a layer  of  fine  ashes,  which 
are  washed  into  the  soil  by  the  first  rains.  Then 
begins  the  sowing. 


i8 


INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS  19 

Armed  with  a pointed  stick  the  women  hollow 
trenches  in  the  soil  and  throw  in  the  seed.  The 
rains  first  and  then  the  soil  itself  complete  their 
work.  The  baskets  are  soon  full  and  the  public 
granaries  stocked  with  the  precious  cereal.  Good 
as  a harvest  may  be,  however,  it  is  seldom  that  a 
crop  is  sufficient  to  support  the  population  till  the 
next.  More  often  the  supply  runs  short  and  the 
tribe  has  to  subsist  for  several  weeks  on  bamboo 
shoots  and  forest  roots. 

Several  times  during  my  visit  I tried  to  inculcate 
in  the  natives  some  elementary  notions  of  thrift 
and  foresight.  A “ Pholy,”  or  village  chief,  once 
showed  me  in  a word  the  weak  point  of  my  counsels. 

“ If  I were  to  start  putting  by  a store,”  he  gravely 
told  me,  “ my  elder  brother,  the  white  warrior, 
would  take  it  from  me  to  feed  his  escort.” 

I vigorously  denied  in  the  name  of  my  kind  any 
such  evil  intentions. 

“ In  that  case,”  he  continued,  “ my  younger 
brothers  in  the  neighbourhood  would  seize  it.  So 
I am  prudent  and  keep  no  store  at  all.” 

Now  what  answer  could  I have  returned  to 
that  ? 

However,  whether  the  Moi  blames  civilization  or  •. 
his  very  human  neighbours,  it  is  certain  that  he  is 
happy-go-lucky  by  nature  and  lives  from  hand  to 
mouth.  His  ignorance  of  economy  may  be  ascribed 
to  two  causes,  one  that  he  possesses  nothing  of  his 
own,  since  all  property  is  held  in  common  by  the/5 

2* 


20  INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS 


tribe,  the  other  that  Nature  is  so  bountiful  as  to 
render  foresight  generally  unnecessary. 

Quite  otherwise  is  the  character  of  the  Annamite, 
who  spares  no  pains  over  the  cultivation  and  im- 
provement of  his  ricefields.  His  barn  is  never  empty. 
The  Emperor  of  Annam  himself  sets  the  example 
and  takes  part  each  year  in  sowing  the  grain  which  is 
destined  for  religious  sacrifices.  By  a long  series 
of  proclamations  the  Government  has  raised  the 
status  of  the  tiller  of  the  soil,  for  it  is  generally  accepted 
that  the  prosperity  of  the  country  depends  more  on 
its  agriculture  than  on  the  expansion  of  its  commerce. 
As  for  the  profession  of  arms,  it  has  long  been  regarded 
as  a relic  of  ancient  barbarism. 

Here  is  an  example  of  one  of  these  proclamations  : 

“ The  tiller  of  the  soil  is  a man  of  worth.  The 
police  shall  never  molest  him.  But  he  who  bears 
arms  is  a brigand  and  my  sbires  will  treat  him  as 
such.” 

This  is  no  doubt  the  origin  of  the  popular  scorn  of 
the  military  profession.  A parallel  is  offered  by 
France  in  the  time  of  Sully,  when  the  interests  of 
agriculture  were  the  special  concern  of  the  legislature. 

Throughout  the  territories  occupied  by  the  Moi 
the  cultivation  of  rice  is  carried  on  alternatively  with 
that  of  maize.  In  the  fertile  soil  this  latter  grows 
to  an  enormous  size.  On  the  plateau  of  Langbian 
it  is  quite  usual  to  find  stalks  thirteen  to  seventeen 
feet  high. 

Every  household  grows  its  OMm  tobacco.  Cigarettes 


INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS  21 


are  made  by  rolling  up  tobacco  in  the  dried  leaves  of 
the  banana  tree.  In  shape  they  resemble  an  ex- 
tended cone  of  which  the  small  end  is  put  in  the 
mouth.  The  pipes  are  of  copper  and  have  a long 
stem.  An  inner  shell  of  bamboo  fibres  is  attached 
to  the  bottom  of  the  bowl  and  the  more  this  is  im- 
pregnated with  nicotine  the  more  it  becomes  an 
object  of  desire,  especially  to  the  women.  Even 
the  babies  play  their  part  in  this  little  comedy,  for 
they  compete  eagerly  for  a suck  at  the  stick  which 
serves  their  fathers  as  a pipe-cleaner. 

Industry  is  in  its  infancy  and  is  confined  to  the 
manufacture  of  simple  objects  of  daily  use,  such  as 
stout  wicker  baskets  and  glazed  pottery.  These 
vessels  are  not  baked  in  a furnace  but  dried  in  the  sun, 
and  are  consequently  very  brittle.  Another  staple 
manufacture  is  the  three-foot  chandelier,  surmounted 
by  a torch  of  resin.  The  women  weave  various 
coarse  cloths  of  cotton.  Their  sole  implement  is  a 
weaving  frame  consisting  of  two  pieces  of  wood 
between  which  are  stretched  two  sets  of  threads. 
The  shuttle  is  worked  by  hand  with  a fair  degree  of 
skill. 

Without  professing  any  great  knowledge  of  the 
art  of  dyeing  the  women  are  quite  familiar  with  the 
properties  of  certain  substances,  of  which  they  take 
full  advantage.  Thus  indigo  furnishes  black  as  well 
as  two  shades  of  blue,  a colour  more  highly  esteemed. 
Yellow  is  obtained  from  the  saffron.  Alum  and 
filtered  cinders  are  put  to  a similar  use. 


2t  INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS 


Cotton  is  bleached  by  soaking  the  material  in  a 
concoction  of  rice-water  boiled  for  several  hours. 

The  needles  which  we  bestowed  on  the  most  skilful 
of  the  housewives  were  accepted  and  preserved  by 
them  as  precious  objects  of  art.  These  ladies,  as 
guardians  of  the  ancient  traditions,  remained  faithful 
to  ancestral  custom  and  preferred  to  use  a blunt  I 
brass  pin,  which  dispenses  with  the  necessity  for  a 
thimble,  the  manipulation  of  which  passes  their 
understanding. 

Iron,  though  found  almost  everywhere  in  its  - 
natural  state,  is  worked  by  only  a few  tribes  which 
have  specialized  in  the  industry.  The  anvil  consists 
either  of  a huge  stone  or  of  a block  of  metal  encased 
in  a wooden  armature.  The  hammer  is  fairly  long  and 
has  a bamboo  handle.  Bamboo  cylinders  convey 
the  draught  to  the  furnace.  This  rudimentary 
equipment  produces  lances  and  knives  of  the  greatest 
efficacy. 

The  extraction  of  iron  is  carried  on  by  the  Catalan 
method.  The  mineral  in  its  natural  state  is  first 
mixed  with  a large  quantity  of  charcoal  and  then 
covered  over  with  clay  and  collected  into  a kind  of 
circular  bin  made  of  bricks.  The  mixture  is  then 
stirred  vigorously  for  twenty-four  hours,  at  the  end 
of  which  it  liquefies  and  falls  into  three  layers.  The 
lower  part  is  composed  of  iron  of  a very  poor  quality, 
the  upper  mainly  of  ashes.  The  middle  layer  alone 
is  of  the  desired  temper  and  can  be  prepared  for  all 
purposes  by  a vigorous  hammering. 


INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS 


All  these  operations  are  accompanied  by  a series  jT 
of  religious  sacrifices,  for  the  genii  of  the  mine  must 
be  propitiated,  and  copious  libations  alone  can  humour 
their  caprice.  A special  day,  the  fourth  of  the 
month,  is  devoted  to  an  annual  festival  in  their 
honour. 

A few  groups  manufacture  gongs  of  copper,  which 
is  found  just  below  the  surface  of  the  soil.  It  seems 
to  be  the  practice  among  these  tribes,  as  soon  as 
copper-bearing  lands  have  been  discovered,  to  secure 
seclusion  and  freedom  from  interference  by  expelling 
all  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  around.  This  is 
certainly  one  explanation  of  the  weird  stories  which 
the  evicted  competitors  tell  of  their  successful  rivals. 

If  the  vanquished  are  to  be  believed,  the  industry  is 
carried  on  by  the  women,  who  live  alone  except  for 
one  annual  visit  to  their  husbands.  These  women 
are  not  merely  unnatural  wives,  but  also  unnatural 
mothers,  for  they  slay  all  their  male  children,  keeping 
only  the  girls.  Their  other  characteristics  are 
hardly  less  formidable.  They  wield  the  lance  with  a 
skill  and  vigour  of  which  any  man  might  be  envious. 
They  are  always  accompanied  by  dogs,  and  finally 
(for  a touch  of  the  supernatural  is  inevitable),  the 
legend  runs  that  their  spinal  column  terminates  in  a 
short  tail. 

I was  extremely  curious  to  make  the  acquaintance 
of  these  Amazons,  but  my  informant  invariably  took 
refuge  in  silence  when  I pressed  him  for  information 
of  their  whereabouts. 


24  INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS 

Whatever  may  be  the  value  of  these  stories,  it  is 
well  known  that  in  this  country,  where  money  is 
unknown,  gongs,  pots  and  jars  serve  as  the  medium 
of  exchange.  The  measure  of  value  is  the  antiquity 
of  the  particular  object.  If  it  has  several  centuries 
behind  it,  its  price  reaches  a truly  fantastic  figure. 

Perhaps  the  Moi  recognize  that  the  arts  are  on  the 
decline  and  that  modern  productions,  if  more  attrac- 
tive, are  far  less  beautiful  than  those  of  bygone  ages. 
It  is  very  unlikely,  for  their  aesthetic  sense  is  still  in 
an  early  stage  of  development. 

The  value  of  a red  earthenware  jar  three  feet  in 
height  and  two  hundred  years  old  is  equal  to  that  of 
thirty  buffaloes.  Another  vessel  known  as  “ The 
Mother  and  Child,”  which  is  composed  of  two  jars 
of  different  sizes  joined  after  the  manner  of  the 
Siamese  twins,  is  worth  fifty  buffaloes.  At  the  top 
of  the  scale  stands  a vase  worth  one  hundred  buffaloes, 
partly  because  it  enjoys  the  reputation  of  being  unique 
and  partly  because  it  is  adorned  with  the  figure  of  a 
shapeless  and  mysterious  human  being. 

The  same  curious  standards  of  taste  are  revealed  in  the 
sets  of  gongs  and  tom-toms.  These  instruments  are 
designed  to  give  three  or  five  concords,  by  the  blending 
of  which  every  variant  of  the  Moi  scale  may  be  pro- 
duced. 

There  is  also  a flourishing  industry  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  cinnamon,  both  for  the  home  market  and  for 
export  to  China,  which  is  the  largest  customer  for  that 
product. 


INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS  25 

The  hunters  make  long  journeys  for  the  purpose 
of  exchanging  elephants’  tusks  and  feet  and  rhinoceros 
horn.  A horn  of  the  latter  animal  is  ordinarily  worth 
ten  buffaloes  among  the  Moi,  but  one  which  is  new  and 
flawless  has  been  known  to  fetch  the  enormous  sum 
of  five  hundred  piastres,  or  fifty  pounds  in  English 
money.  The  Annamites  are  the  most  successful 
hunters  and  dealers.  Every  power  aiming  at  colonial 
expansion  should  concentrate  its  efforts  on  developing 
commercial  relations  with  the  natives.  Trade  is 
the  most  potent  agent  of  conquest  and  the  only  one 
which  brings  prosperity  and  security  in  its  train. 

We  found  fishing  with  dynamite  another  means 
of  peaceful  penetration  into  these  regions,  though 
available  only  in  places  watered  by  a stream  or  river. 
We  made  a point  of  inviting  all  the  inhabitants  of 
the  villages  in  the  neighbourhood  of  our  camp  and 
it  was  seldom  that  the  audience  was  not  large  and 
representative,  so  great  was  the  interest  roused  by  this 
operation.  Judging  by  the  horde  of  women  which 
issued  from  every  hamlet  and  the  enormous  baskets 
brought  by  the  children  we  might  have  been  setting 
out  to  clear  the  river  of  every  living  creature  in  it. 
The  men,  who  fish  both  for  food  and  sport,  showed 
themselves  very  willing  to  indicate  the  favourite 
haunts  of  our  prey. 

Curiosity  was  roused  to  the  highest  pitch  by  the 
preparation  of  the  charge  and  the  Bickford  train  was 
an  object  of  interest  almost  approaching  reverence. 
I fired  a few  inches  of  this  and  astonishment  knew  no 


26  INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS 


bounds.  The  younger  members  of  my  audience 
spoke  openly  of  sorcery,  while  the  elder  smiled  in  a 
knowing  manner  but  kept  at  a safe  distance. 

At  length  the  charge  was  ready.  I fired  the  end 
of  the  train  and  threw  the  infernal  machine,  weighted 
with  a stone,  into  the  middle  of  the  water-.  The 
stone  described  a long  parabola  and  fell  into  the  dark 
depths  carrying  the  instrument  of  destruction  after 
it.  For  some  seconds  there  was  a deathly  silence. 
Then  a terrific  explosion  rent  the  air  and  a column 
of  smoke  and  steam  rose  from  the  surface  of  the  water 
to  the  height  of  the  highest  trees.  There  was  a 
whirr  of  wings  as  the  birds  scattered  from  the  branches. 
The  Moi  gaped  at  each  other  in  amazement  and 
prostrated  themselves  on  the  ground.  Screams  of 
fear  from  the  children  announced  their  conviction 
that  the  genius  of  the  river,  enraged  at  this  intrusion 
on  his  dominions,  was  coming  to  carry  them  off. 

Soon  the  cloud  vanished,  transformed  into  a 
shower  of  refreshing  rain.  Calm  replaced  the  storm. 
The  startled  doves  cautiously  returned  to  their 
nests.  The  stream  flowed  on,  unruffled,  forgetful. 
Suddenly  a few  white  specks  appeared  on  the 
surface,  vanished  and  reappeared  in  ever-increasing 
numbers  until  the  waters  seemed  alive.  These  were 
the  fish,  their  air-bladders  burst  by  the  force  of  the 
explosion  and  now  floundering  helplessly  at  the 
mercy  of  the  swift  current.  The  crowning  moment 
had  arrived.  With  one  accord  the  spectators  dived 
into  the  stream  to  secure  their  easy  prey.  The 


Fishing  with  Dynamite  : After  the  Explosion. 


A Floating  N'illage. 


[To  lace  p.  26. 


A Typical  Village  in  Laos. 


Primitive  Irrigation  in  Laos. 


[To  face  p.  zy 


INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS  27 

more  wary  had  armed  themselves  with  a liane,  to 
which  they  fastened  their  victims  by  the  gills.  The 
booty  was  then  easily  towed  between  their  teeth. 

The  women  and  children  were  in  the  very  fore- 
front of  the  fray,  and  there  are  few  more  entertaining 
spectacles  than  that  of  all  these  babies  racing  each 
other  amid  screams  of  delight.  In  a few  moments 
the  water  was  cleared  ‘of  its  shouting,  struggling 
invaders,  whose  bronze  skins  glistened  beneath  a silver 
film  of  pearly  drops.  One  by  one,  after  adjusting 
their  simple  garb,  they  advanced  to  lay  their  booty 
in  a large  basket  at  my  feet,  then  withdrew  with  a 
delightful  affectation  of  indifference  as  to  my  inten- 
tions. Then  began  the  ceremony  of  distribution.  The 
basket  raised  on  a mound  of  earth  became  the  centre 
of  a circle.  The  children  advanced  in  single  file, 
the  youngest  first.  At  the  head  of  the  procession  \ 
was  a youngster  of  less  than  six  years  of  age,  who  had  ; 
no  difficulty  in  selecting  the  largest  fish,  which  he  J 
dragged  away  by  the  tail  stammering  with  excitement. 
The  mothers  followed,  more  modest  in  their  desires. 
In  a few  moments  I was  left  alone,  a dismal  survival 
of  the  merry  throng. 

Fish  is  the  favourite  food  of  the  people  in  these 
regions  and  every  river  contains  an  apparently  in-  . 
exhaustible  supply  of  it.  The  three  current  methods  j 
of  fishing  are  with  line,  net,  and  spear.  The  nets 
are  spread  across  the  narrow  channel,  which  is  always 

left  in  the  middle  of  the  bamboo  dams.  The  bait, 

\ 

consists  of  the  stalks  of  certain  weeds  and  plants, 


28  INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS 


which  are  treated  to  form  a soft  paste.  When  a haul 
has  been  particularly  successful  the  fish  is  smoked 
and  preserved  for  several  months.  For  this  purpose 
it  is  pounded  with  salt  and  pimento  and  stored  in 
bamboo  tubes.  In  this  state  it  is  a favourite 
condiment. 

There  is  little  change  of  diet,  for  the  food  supply 
is  virtually  restricted  to  the  products  of  fishing  and 
hunting.  Domestic  animals  are  never  used  for  food 
except  upon  special  occasions  such  as  religious 
sacrifices. 

Traps  are  preferred  to  weapons  for  keeping  down 
the  wild  beasts  which  swarm  in  the  forests.  Both 
in  devising  and  constructing  snares  the  natives 
display  a high  degree  of  invention  and  skill.  We 
found  apparatus  of  different  kinds  all  over  the  country, 
its  form  being,  apparently  determined  by  the  seasons 
of  the  year  and  the  particular  region.  For  example, 
the  following  method  is  employed  in  a thickly- 
wooded  country  where  the  presence  of  beasts  of 
prey  is  only  known  by  the  tracks  leading  to  their 
watering-places. 

The  hunters  select  a young  tree,  supple  but  yet 
sufficiently  strong  for  their  purpose.  The  top  is 
forced  over  and  secured  to  the  ground  by  means 
of  a tough  fibre  in  which  a noose  is  made.  The 
long  grass  conceals  all  these  traces  of  human  inter- 
vention. Now  the  monster,  tiger  or  panther, 
approaches.  It  cannot  pass  the  spot  without  dis- 
turbing the  simple  mechanism  which  the  least  shock 


INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS  29 

would  set  in  motion.  The  sapling,  suddenly  released, 
flies  back,  and  the  unfortunate  captive  finds  its 
neck  or  paw  firmly  gripped  by  the  noose.  The 
more  it  struggles  the  tighter  becomes  the  knot, 
and  if  not  actually  strangled,  it  soon  becomes  ex- 
hausted by  its  agonized  efforts  to  escape,  and  hangs, 
a miserable  object,  on  this  improvised  gallows. 

Another  method  is  to  dig  a pit  in  a track  the 
course  of  which  has  been  carefully  noted.  Animals 
have  fixed  habits  according  to  the  season  of  the 
year.  Shortly  before  nightfall  they  emerge  from 
their  lairs  on  an  expedition  to  secure  an  evening 
meal.  The  pit  must  be  both  narrow  and  deep,  and 
its  dimensions  calculated  so  nicely  that  the  move- 
ments of  the  prisoner  will  be  hampered  in  every 
direction.  This  object  is  further  secured  by  driving 
stakes  into  the  ground  at  the  bottom  so  that  the 
mere  act  of  falling  in  will  inflict  the  most  severe 
injuries.  The  place  is  then  concealed  by  a layer 
of  branches,  a part  of  the  operation  which  needs 
the  greatest  care  if  the  trap  is  not  to  be  detected. 
A little  earth  from  the  excavation  lying  on  the  ground 
at  the  side  is  quite  enough  to  warn  some  animals 
of  the  presence  of  danger  and  the  condition  of  the 
grass  and  branches,  which  quickly  decay,  is  in  itself 
a suspicious  circumstance.  The  tiger  is  one  of  the 
most  wary  and  observant  of  beasts  and  is  seldom 
captured  in  this  manner,  except  when  being  pursued, 
when  it  has  not  the  time  to  take  its  usual  pre- 
cautions. Deer,  on  the  other  hand,  seem  much  less 


30  INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS 

suspicious  and  frequently  fall  a victim  to  this 
particular  wile. 

There  is  another  trap  which  requires  equal  care 
in  construction,  and  closely  resembles  the  eel  traps 
which  are  common  in  Europe.  It  is  a cage,  cir- 
cumscribed by  a double  row  of  bamboos  as  a palisade. 
The  beast  has  to  penetrate  a hedge  of  bamboos  to 
find  the  entrance  which  leads  to  an  open  space  where 
a pig  or  goat  rewards  its  curiosity.  Once  inside, 
however,  its  retreat  is  cut  off,  for  the  bamboos  spring 
back  to  their  natural  position,  thus  closing  up  the 
entrance,  and  the  palisade  is  quite  strong  enough 
to  resist  attack,  however  fierce. 

It  will  be  recognized  that  the  construction  of 
these  snares  calls  for  a degree  of  skill  and  experi- 
ence to  which  few  Europeans  can  attain.  Some- 
times the  pits  were  so  cunningly  dug  that  it  was 
almost  impossible  to  detect  their  presence  and  we 
were  in  serious  danger  of  falling  in  ourselves.  As 
a rule  the  natives  indicate  the  proximity  of  a trap 
by  some  signal  such  as  a broken  branch,  a spear  driven 
into  a tree,  or  a stalk  twisted  in  a certain  manner; 
but,  of  course,  the  purport  of  these  signs  is  known 
only  to  the  initiated,  and  at  the  beginning  of  our 
expedition  we  had  much  more  to  fear  from  the  tiger- 
traps  than  from  the  chances  of  an  encounter  with 
the  beast  for  which  they  were  intended. 

It  must  not  be  imagined  that  the  Moi  confine 
themselves  to  the  destruction  of  wild  beasts  only, 
or  merely  those  which  threaten  their  safety. 


INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS  31 

Elephants  are  slaughtered  ruthlessly  for  the  sake 
of  their  ivory.  The  elephants  haunt  the  damp  and  ) 
sandy  regions  of  this  country.  During  the  dry 
season  from  November  to  March  herds  consisting 
of  anything  from  ten  to  twenty  beasts  make  their 
way  to  the  forests  both  for  shelter  from  the  heat 
and  for  the  pools  which  have  not  yet  dried  up.  It 
is  generally  at  watering-time  that  the  creature 
makes  itself  heard  with  loud  trumpetings  which 
are  audible  at  an  immense  distance  and  betray 
ist  presence  to  its  human  enemy.  When  the 
elephant  is  undisturbed  its  progress  is  sedate  and 
leisurely  and  it  stops  every  now  and  then  to  pluck 
a branch  either  for  recreation  or  to  serve  as  a fly- 
swish. 

It  is  this  last  habit,  well  known  to  the  native 
hunter,  which  betrays  it  and  leads  to  its  down- 
fall. The  first  time  I took  part  in  an  elephant-hunt 
I was  amazed  to  see  that  the  native  who  was  guiding 
me  kept  his  eyes  fixed  upwards  all  the  time.  I should 
have  thought  it  was  obvious  that  we  needed  no 
other  guide  than  the  enormous  footprints  left  by 
the  unwieldy  beasts,  and  told  him  so.  I was  not 
long  left  in  error.  Without  relaxing  his  efforts  he 
soon  showed  me  that  these  tracks  were  very  un- 
reliable, that  they  frequently  pointed  different  ways, 
cut  across  each  other,  and  sometimes,  in  fact,  dis- 
appeared altogether.  He  told  me  also  that  the 
evacuations  of  the  creature  are  liable  to  be  misleading 
unless  quite  fresh,  still  viscous,  and  unaffected  bv 


32  INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS 


insects.  A trail  in  a forest  must  then  be  sought 
not  on  the  ground  but  in  the  branches  of  the  trees. 
It  is  by  the  broken  branches,  the  appearance  of  the 
severed  ends,  and  the  consistency  of  the  gum  which 
escapes,  that  the  experienced  hunter  can  deduce 
the  more  or  less  recent  passage  of  a herd. 

I smile  now  when  I think  of  the  succession  of 
surprises  I experienced  on  that  first  hunting  adven- 
ture and  the  ignorance  I must  have  exhibited.  We 
came  to  some  swampy  ground  where  my  guide 
stopped  short  before  some  tracks  that  seemed  to 
him  the  most  fresh  we  had  yet  encountered.  He 
carefully  made  some  fresh  tracks  at  the  side  with  his 
feet  and  then  lay  at  full  length  on  the  ground  to 
compare  the  two  sets  of  footprints.  After  a most 
minute  examination  of  their  respective  appearances 
he  calculated  that  less  than  half  an  hour  had  elapsed 
since  the  animals  had  passed  by  and  went  on  his 
way  without  comment. 

We  had  started  out  at  sunrise,  which  is  the  ortho- 
dox and  best  time.  To  set  out  earlier  is  to  court 
failure,  for  it  is  impossible  to  be  sure  of  the  traces 
in  the  darkness.  At  first  we  had  directed  ourselves 
by  the  pools,  and  on  reaching  a third  pond  were 
overjoyed  to  observe  some  traces  obviously  quite 
fresh.  It  is  usually  hopeless  to  start  on  a trail  which 
is  several  days  old,  for  a track  made  only  the  previous 
evening  may  easily  take  one  much  farther  than  is 
agreeable.  Hunters  who  say  that  they  have  tracked 
elephants  for  weeks  show  more  perseverance  than 


INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS  33 

intelligence.  As  it  was,  my  companion  lost  the 
trail  several  times,  but  never  took  a short  cut  in  the 
wild  hope  of  picking  it  up  farther  on.  He  might 
as  well  have  started  hunting  for  shadows.  Every 
time  this  mishap  occurred  he  retraced  his  steps  to 
the  point  of  departure  and  looked  again.  He  was 
not  to  be  deflected  from  his  purpose  even  by  the 
trumpetings  of  the  elephants  themselves,  though 
these  were  quite  audible  at  times. 

“ Ong  Bioi  (Mr.  Elephant)  would  make  a liar  of 
me,”  he  explained  in  his  picturesque  jargon. 

He  was  quite  right,  for  in  tracking  these  monsters 
the  only  safe  rule  is  to  follow  the  trail  and  leave 
short  cuts  severely  alone.  Besides,  this  hunting 
sense,  if  I may  so  call  it,  is  only  a practical  application 
of  that  sense  of  direction  of  which  I have  spoken 
before,  and  which  seems  almost  to  be  an  instinct 
with  some  people.  It  is  something  analogous  to  the 
sense  of  danger  which  is  found  in  certain  specially  con- 
stituted individuals  who  can  foretell  the  presence  of  a 
danger  by  the  twitching  of  the  muscles  of  the  back. 

Soon,  without  any  apparent  reason,  my  guide 
signalled  to  me  to  relieve  myself,  and  as  I did  not 
comply  at  once,  he  repeated  his  order  with  a gesture 
that  left  no  doubt  as  to  his  wishes.  He  knew  from 
long  experience  of  big-game  hunting  how  dangerous 
a nervous  contraction,  such  as  that  of  an  overcharged 
bladder,  can  be  at  a moment  when  the  accuracy  of 
a shot  may  make  all  the  difference  between  life  and 
death. 


3 


34  INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS 

He  then  took  oil  my  colonial  helmet,  which  in  all 
its  khaki  glory  was  a somewhat  conspicuous  object, 
and  replaced  it  by  his  own  head-gear,  a muddy-/ 
coloured  turban,  quite  unnameable,  which  certainl)| 
harmonized  better  with  our  surroundings.  I was 
dressed  in  a suit  of  Chinese  linen,  slate  grey  in  colour, 
which  seemed  to  meet  with  his  approval,  while,  for 
himself,  he  carried  his  whole  wardrobe,  consisting 
of  a thin  woollen  cloth,  lightly  wrapped  round  his 
waist. 

He  then  picked  up  a handful  of  dust  and  threw  it 
up  in  the  air  to  observe  the  direction  of  the  wind. 
This  is  the  most  indispensable  precaution,  for  if  the 
elephant  is  not  blessed  with  keen  sight,  its  hearing 
is  extremely  acute  and  can  detect  an  unwonted  sound 
at  a great  distance.  It  must  be  approached,  therefore, 
against  the  wind. 

During  the  hottest  part  of  the  day  the  elephant 
either  stands  with  its  trunk  wound  round  the  lower 
branch  of  a tree,  or  else  lies  down,  sometimes  with 
its  legs  folded  under  it  and  sometimes  at  full 
length  on  its  side,  just  like  a horse.  In  none  of  these 
positions  does  it  need  the  assistance  of  a mound  of 
earth  or  a tree  trunk  to  rise,  though  some  travellers 
would  have  us  believe  it.  In  spite  of  its  immense 
bulk  it  can  get  up  unaided  at  the  first  hint  of  danger. 
M.  Millet,  of  the  Woods  and  Forests  Department 
of  Indo-China,  who  was  also  a member  of  our  party, 
was  a specialist  in  this  form  of  sport,  and  gave  me 
the  benefit  of  his  fifteen  years’  experience. 


INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS  35 

It  must  be  understood  that  though  the  preliminary 
stalking  is  usually  done  by  the  natives  the  honour 
of  executing  the  sentence  of  death  is  reserved  for  the 
European.  This  would  naturally  seem  the  easiest 
part  of  the  operations,  for  it  would  appear  impossible 
to  miss  so  vast  an  object  at  short  range.  The 
uninitiated  always  fall  into  the  error  of  underrating 
the  difficulties  involved  in  killing  these  creatures, 
but  the  error  rarely  survives  the  first  experience. 

To  begin  with,  the  hunter  who  wishes  to  kill  with 
the  first  shot  must  have  a considerable  knowledge 
of  the  beast’s  anatomy.  Otherwise  he  exposes  himself 
to  a furious  charge  or  to  the  mortification  of  seeing 
his  bullet  reach  a non-vital  spot  and  his  prey  vanish 
into  the  forest  unharmed.  A knowledge  of  the 
structure  of  the  skull  is,  in  fact,  indispensable,  for  a 
miss  by  a hair’s-breadth  in  that  region  will  change  a 
wound  that  might  have  been  mortal  into  an  insignifi- 
cant scratch.  The  natives  are  notoriously  ignorant 
of  such  matters,  and,  in  consequence,  usually  aim  at 
the  shoulder  and  lose  half  the  animals  they  hunt. 

The  vulnerable  spot  to  which  all  experienced  shots 
direct  their  attention  is  the  temple,  or  rather  a spot 
about  one  third  of  an  inch  above  the  ear-hole.  If 
the  hunter  can  find  some  eminence  which  puts  him 
at  the  level  of  this  vital  place  his  bullet  will  pass 
straight  through  the  brain  and  out  at  the  other  ear. 
Death  occurs  instantaneously.  The  creature  sinks 
down,  its  fore  legs  bent  under  him,  its  back  legs 
stretched  out,  while  its  head  and  body  remain  rigid. 

3* 


36  INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS 

The  same  result  is  obtained  by  aiming  behind  the 
ear.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  almost  useless  to  fire 
straight  into  the  advancing  creature  or  hit  it  at 
the  base  of  the  trunk,  especially  with  rifles  of  small 
bore. 

It  was  this  last  shot  that  I attempted  on  this  first 
elephant  hunt  when  I was  still  in  the  depths  of 
ignorance.  The  creature  uttered  a roar  of  agony, 
raised  its  trunk  in  the  air  and  charged  straight  at  me, 
covering  thirty  yards  in  a flash.  I thought  myself 
lost,  but  when  almost  on  me  it  suddenly  made  a half 
turn  on  its  haunches  with  as  much  agility  as  a circus 
pony  and  dashed  off  at  a tangent  smashing  every 
obstacle  in  its  path.  My  tracker  had  also  fired 
with  his  Laotian  rifle,  and  both  shots  were,  in  fact, 
mortal,  though  quite  incapable  of  arresting  its  mad 
career.  Only  next  day  we  came  upon  its  carcase, 
already  in  a state  of  putrefaction  and  half  devoured 
by  white  ants. 

No  less  important  for  big-game  hunting  of  this 
character  is  the  choice  of  a rifle. 

Fired  by  an  expert  a Winchester  bullet  not  more 
than  seven  millimetres  in  diameter  and  fourteen 
grammes  in  weight  is  quite  sufficient  for  all  pur- 
poses, but  a beginner  should  never  start  with  any- 
thing less  than  ten  millimetres  in  diameter  and 
nineteen  grammes  in  weight  when  hunting  the  tiger 
or  any  larger  animal.  Such  a ball,  projected  at  an 
initial  velocity  of  650  metres  to  the  second,  will 
stop  any  animal  if  it  strikes  either  the  shoulder  or  the 


INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS  37 


breast.  The  Moi,  of  course,  are  not  armed  with  our 
modern  rifles.  In  fact,  few  of  them  possess  a rifle 
at  all,  but  the  more  fortunate  among  them  buy  the' 
rustic  Laotian  rifles,  a kind  of  blunderbuss  which 
kicks  and  not  infrequently  knocks  them  down.  The^ 
projectile  used  is  not  a bullet  but  a poisoned  arrow 
made  from  an  extremely  hard  wood. 

Among  the  Moi  the  sorcerers  alone  know  the 
secret  processes  which  are  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  two  extremely  powerful  cardiac  poisons,  antiarin 
and  strophanthin,  though  these  are  also  in  use  among 
the  Dyaks  of  Borneo.  No  one  else  is  allowed  to  be 
present  when  their  preparation  is  taking  place,  but 
fortunately  one  of  my  compatriots  in  the  mission, 
M.  Odera,  who  was  in  the  Woods  and  Forests  Depart- 
ments and  had  thirty  elephants  killed  or  captured  to 
his  credit,  was  once  honoured  by  an  invitation  to  be 
present  at  the  ceremony. 

A moonlight  night  is  chosen.  The  novice  first 
invokes  the  genii  of  the  forest  and  then  cuts  a portion 
of  the  creeper  strophantus  giganteus,  strips  off  the 
bark,  grinds  it  up  in  a mortar  and  boils  it  over  a fire 
until  it  attains  the  consistency  of  gum.  This  opera- 
tion takes  place  at  a great  distance  from  the  village, 
for  the  fumes  are  supposed  to  be  noxious.  To  ascer- 
tain whether  the  required  strength  has  been  attained 
they  cut  off  part  of  a lizard’s  tail  and  put  a drop  of 
the  concoction  on  the  severed  end.  Death  ought 
to  be  immediate. 

The  second  poison  is  obtained  from  the  antiarts 


38  INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS 


toxicaria  without  any  special  preparation.  An  in- 
cision is  made  in  the  bark  of  the  tree.  In  some 
regions  the  arrows  are  poisoned  by  the  simple  ex- 
pedient of  sticking  them  into  the  trunk  of  the  poison- 
bearing tree  and  leaving  them  in  this  novel  pin- 
cushion until  required. 

It  is  a curious  fact  that  game  killed  by  poisoned 
arrows  is  perfectly  wholesome  if  the  wound  is  care- 
fully washed  at  once.  The  young  plants  also  of  the 
antiaris  toxicaria  supply  an  absorbent  poison.  Their 
sap  is  not  as  powerful  as  that  of  the  full-grown  trees, 
but  on  the  other  hand  has  neither  its  bitterness  nor 
repulsive  smell. 

Both  the  strophantus  giganteus  and  the  antiaris 
are  found  all  over  the  Indo-Chinese  and  Malay 
peninsulas.  The  effect  of  antiaris  is  the  same  whether 
introduced  into  the  digestive  organs  or  applied  to 
the  cellular  tissue,  but  in  the  former  case  the  dose 
must  be  considerably  stronger  to  produce  the  same 
result.  It  is  pleasant  to  record  that  there  is  little 
data  on  which  to  base  observations  on  the  effect  of 
the  Moi  poisons  on  human  beings.  Our  own  ex- 
perience furnished  one  or  two  illustrations,  however. 
While  we  were  in  Nhe-An,  a province  of  Annam,  one 
of  our  captains  was  wounded  by  two  arrows  and, 
though  they  were  taken  out  at  once,  he  died  twenty- 
two  days  later  in  fearful  agony.  Another  officer 
was  struck  by  a poisoned  missile  and  after  a few 
minutes  went  mad  and  committed  suicide.  The 
danger  of  attack  by  the  rebellious  Moi  was  always 


INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS  39 

present  to  our  minds  during  the  expedition.  Two 
officers,  MM.  Canivey  and  Barbu,  were  wounded  by 
several  arrows.  As  there  was  no  post  where  medical 
assistance  could  be  obtained  within  several  days’ 
march  and  no  doctor  among  us,  I undertook  a rational 
cure.  All  the  symptoms  pointed  to  poison.  The 
nervous  tremours,  the  alternating  phases  of  excite- 
ment and  lethargy,  the  dilation  of  the  pupil,  the  feeble 
voice  and  the  subnormal  temperature  left  no  doubt 
as  to  the  nature  of  the  malady.  For  a long  time  it 
seemed  that  recovery  was  impossible,  for  the  arrow 
heads  had  not  been  immediately  extracted ; but 
events  took  a happier  turn  and  in  four  weeks  they 
were  both  well  again.  I can  only  conclude  that  the 
poison  cannot  have  been  fresh  and  consequently  had 
lost  much  of  its  strength.  The  natives  treat  a patient 
for  poison  by  first  making  the  wound  bleed,  then 
washing  it  in  water  impregnated  with  sea  salt  and 
calcined  alum,  and  finally  inducing  a heavy  perspira- 
tion by  making  him  drink  an  infusion  of  mulberry 
leaves. 

Most  of  the  Moi  arm  themselves  with  the  cross- 
bow, which  is  a deadly  weapon  at  a range  of  not! 
more  than  forty  yards.  At  half  that  distance  the! 
arrow  will  easily  penetrate  through  two  inches  of  the 
hardest  wood.  The  arrow  head  is  made  of  iron  or 
wood,  around  which  is  wound  a thread  impregnated 
with  the  poisonous  substance.  It  is  fashioned  with 
a notch  at  the  base  to  make  its  extraction  from  a 
wound  difficult,  if  not  impossible. 


40  INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS 

The  manipulation  of  the  cross-bow  requires  no  t 
little  strength.  The  bowman  props  the  cross  against 
his  body  and  holds  the  bow  firm  on  the  ground  with 
his  foot.  The  strain  of  fixing  the  arrow  is  so  great 
that  it  has  been  known  to  burst  the  bladder. 

When  the  Moi  goes  to  war  with  his  neighbours  4 
he  generally  swathes  his  body  in  a multitude  of  thick  j 
wrappings  to  give  him  protection  against  such  weapons 
as  knives  and  daggers.  His  shield  is  of  stout  cane  or  ' 
buffalo  hide  and  usually  ornamented  with  the  insignia  ' 
of  his  tribe.  Finally  his  panoply  is  completed  by  a | 
spear  with  a handle  of  mahogany-or  sometimes  by  a 
two-handed  sword.  He  is  also  ingenious  at  con- 
structing subsidiary  defences.  On  the  outbreak  of 
hostilities  the  neighbourhood  of  a village  is  thickly 
studded  with  small  bamboo  javelins,  which  are 
extremely  difficult  to  distinguish  from  the  grass  and 
brushwood.  Some  of  our  party  received  grievous 
wounds  from  these  concealed  weapons. 

The  forests  we  encountered  during  our  topo- 
graphical survey  are  the  home  of  a certain  kind  of  | 
buffalo  of  immense  size.  This  species,  which  is  ‘ 
very  rare  and  not  found  elsewhere,  is  no  other  than  | 
the  Aurochs,  which  are  called  “ Con-minh  ” by  the 
Annamites  and  “ Co-bay  ” by  the  Moi.  These  | 
animals  are  bay  in  colour  and  have  a short  and  scanty 
coat,  with  the  longest  hairs  under  the  belly  and  at 
the  throat.  They  have  white  spots  on  all  four  feet, 
and  resemble  the  wild  buffalo  in  not  being  dewlapped. 
They  are  formidable  foes  and  never  wait  to  be  attacked, 


INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS  41 

but  charge  with  lowered  head  at  a prodigious  speed. 
The  tiger  seems  to  have  no  terrors  for  them  and  many 
are  the  stories  of  their  triumphs  over  the  king  of  the 
forest  himself. 

Now,  as  a rule,  a tiger  is  not  dangerous  unless  it 
takes  the  initiative  itself,  which  it  seldom  fails 
to  do  in  these  regions,  where  its  supremacy  has  hardly 
yet  been  seriously  challenged.  Hence  the  saying 
which  experience  has  abundantly  justified : “ In 

Indo-China  the  tiger  is  the  hunter  and  man  the 
hunted.” 

Of  course,  it  is  very  unusual  to  meet  this  ferocious 
creature  by  daylight,  even  in  regions  where  its 
ravages  are  the  most  frequent.  Every  traveller  will 
pass  by  its  lair  in  the  bamboo  groves,  but  it  is  quite 
exceptional  to  see  the  beast  itself,  except  at  night- 
fall, when  it  comes  forth  to  seek  its  prey.  Once  a 
tiger  has  tasted  human  flesh  it  prefers  it  to  all  other 
food.  Accordingly,  the  natives  live  in  a state  of 
chronic  fear  of  the  man-eater  and  will  willingly 
abandon  their  villages  rather  than  make  the  least 
effort  to  rid  themselves  of  the  pest.  As  I shall  show 
later,  they  endow  their  enemy  with  human  qualities 
and  frequently  refuse  to  destroy  it  when  at  their 
mercy  for  fear  of  arousing  the  vengeance  of  the  whole 
species. 

One  of  our  party  once  witnessed  the  following 
scene.  A tiger  had  fallen  into  a pit  which  had  been 
laid  for  some  deer.  It  had  not  been  wounded,  but 
the  space  was  so  cramped  that  it  was  quite  unable 


42  INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS 

to  move.  The  natives  were  terrified  lest  it  should 
die,  in  which  case  its  spirit  would  never  cease  to 
molest  them ; so  they  decided  to  set  it  free.  They 
made  a cage  without  a floor,  lowered  it  into  the  pit 
and  then  raised  it  up  again  by  means  of  ropes  passed 
under  the  creature.  Perched  on  the  neighbouring 
trees  they  pulled  away  the  prison  and  let  the  captive 
go,  offering  it  their  humble  apologies  for  having 
already  detained  it  so  long ! Our  representative 
had  been  compelled  to  promise  his  acquiescence, 
and,  lest  he  should  repent  and  show  fight,  his  rifle 
was  carefully  left  behind  in  the  village. 

I myself  saw  tigers  on  several  occasions  and  often 
under  circumstances  when  I wished  them  at  the 
bottom  of  the  deepest  pit  that  human  ingenuity 
could  devise.  One  such  occasion  has  left  so  vivid 
an  impression  on  my  mind  by  reason  of  its  tragic 
outcome  that  I shall  relate  it  here. 

It  was  during  the  hot  season  when  Sergeant 
Valutioni  and  I were  in  charge  of  a reconnoitring 
party  sent  forward  to  report  on  a region  which  he 
assured  me  was  infested  with  tigers.  In  fact  on  the 
day  in  question  he  had  gone  so  far  as  to  bet  me 
that  we  would  meet  a man-eater  before  nightfall. 
Now  during  the  whole  of  my  ten  months’  residence 
in  Annam  I had  frequently  passed  through  alleged 
tiger-stricken  provinces  but  had  never  seen  a single 
tiger,  though  at  every  station  I was  literally  shot 
through  and  through  with  stories  of  their  wholesale 
depredations.  According  to  my  colleagues  every 


INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS  43 

step  was  accompanied  by  the  probability  of  imme- 
diate destruction.  I became  more  and  more  sceptical 
and  finally  persuaded  myself  that  the  fearsome  tales 
were  spread  by  the  old  colonists  with  a view  to  dis- 
couraging newcomers.  Accordingly  I dismissed 
Valutioni’s  sinister  predictions  with  a knowing  smile. 

Our  way  led  through  a magnificent  forest.  The 
sun  grew  hotter  with  every  step,  the  ground  harder 
as  the  carpet  of  moss  and  ferns  dried  up  and  withered. 
The  trees  became  more  stunted  and  their  branches, 
almost  denuded  of  leaves,  took  on  strange  fantastic 
shapes.  Such  foliage  as  there  was  seemed  burnt  up 
and  ready  to  fall  at  the  first  breath  of  wind.  Now 
and  then  a huge  ant-heap  broke  the  level  sky-line 
and  blended  bewitchingly  with  the  reddening  trunks. 
A deathlike  silence  reigned,  unchallenged  even  by  a 
bird,  over  this  realm  of  ill-omen. 

Sao,  the  nephew  of  the  chief  of  our  escort,  was 
walking  a few  yards  ahead  of  me  carrying  my  rifle. 
He  was  an  intelligent  boy  about  twelve  years  of 
age,  with  a peculiarly  frank  and  pleasant  expression, 
and  I had  had  considerable  hesitation  in  bringing 
him  with  us  on  an  expedition  which  was  bound  to 
be  long  and  trying,  if  not  actually  dangerous.  His 
urgent  request  to  join  the  party,  however,  overcame 
my  reluctance,  and  I was  also  tempted  by  the  know 
ledge  that  the  young  Moi  is  more  tough  and  reliable 
than  his  elders. 

He  busied  himself  with  cutting  down  the  low 
projecting  branches  which  impeded  my  progresi 


44  INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS 


and  enlivened  our  march  by  humming  a plaintive 
native  melody  in  honour  of  the  great  Spirit  who 
keeps  watch  and  ward  over  the  tigers.  About  mid- 
day we  found  a thick  bamboo  grove  which  offered 
welcome  shelter  against  the  torrid  heat.  Sao  now 
took  on  the  duties  of  scullion  and  rendered  invaluable 
aid  to  my  boy  in  preparing  our  bushman’s  lunch. 

Valutioni  lost  no  time  in  attacking  a consomme  of 
parrakeet,  while  a salmi  of  rat  met  with  universal 
approval,  and  this  sumptuous  feast  was  crowned  with 
a cup  of  mocha  in  St.  Galmier  water,  which  accom- 
panies every  expedition,  as  the  forest  pools  are  both 
few  and  foul. 

Meanwhile  our  Moi  escort  were  preparing  and 
taking  their  more  frugal  meal.  They  made  a fire 
and  cooked  a kind  of  pancake,  of  which  rice  is  the 
chief  constituent.  The  thick  paste  swells  up  rapidly 
looking  like  a piece  of  bread  soaked  in  water.  Sao 
made  a hearty  meal,  showing  a healthy  contempt 
of  European  delicacies. 

When  we  resumed  our  journey  the  sun  was  more 
cruel  than  ever.  Not  a breath  of  wind  stirred  the 
parched  air,  which  almost  burnt  our  nostrils.  The 
bearers  were  hindered  in  their  march  by  a thick  carpet 
of  dried  branches  and  the  necessity  of  stopping  at 
frequent  intervals  to  remove  the  thorns  from  their 
feet. 

These  delays  were  particularly  aggravating,  as  we 
had  resolved  to  make  our  night  quarters  at  Song- 
Phan,  where  the  river  promised  us  a welcome  bathe 


INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS  45 

and  an  ideal  spot  for  a camp.  Also  the  horses, 
tormented  by  the  flies,  became  so  restive  as  to  be 
almost  unmanageable. 

At  length  the  sound  of  the  torrent  broke  the 
silence,  and  presently  a sheet  of  water  gleaming  like 
burnished  steel  appeared  between  two  gaunt  bluffs. 
In  a few  minutes  our  men  had  felled  two  large  trunks 
to  serve  as  a bridge  from  one  bank  to  the  other,  and 
in  a few  more  the  fires  were  burning  brightly. 
Valutioni  insisted  on  my  taking  some  precautions 
against  the  attacks  of  wild  beasts  and  I issued  an 
order  that  no  one  should  go  to  find  water  without 
some  escort. 

One  who  has  never  experienced  the  pangs  of  a 
tropical  thirst  cannot  imagine  the  delirious  delight 
of  a “ bushman  ” when  a chance  is  presented  of  a 
drink  of  pure  water.  How  much  greater  is  his 
ecstasy  when  the  opportunity  of  a bathe  is  added  ! 
We  threw  prudence  to  the  winds  and  took  to  the 
water  like  ducks  in  spite  of  Valutioni’s  solemn  warn- 
ing that  the  hour  was  late  and  none  other  than  that 
selected  by  the  tiger  for  its  evening  work. 

Soon  night  came  down,  unheralded  by  twilight, 
and  shrouded  the  earth  in  a thick  mantle  of  darkness. 
We  felt  somewhat  awed  and  dressed  ourselves  in 
silence.  The  way  back  to  the  camp  took  us  by  a 
narrow  path  cut  in  an  impenetrable  bamboo  thicket. 
A party  of  water-carriers  passed  us,  Sao  bringing  up 
the  rear  swinging  his  heavy  gourd  and  singing  the 
same  melancholy  chant.  He  looked  so  happy  that 


46  INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS 

I could  not  resist  giving  him  a friendly  pat  on  the 
cheek  as  he  went  by. 

I had  not  advanced  five  yards  when  a heart- 
rending scream  made  me  turn  round  sharply  just 
in  time  to  see  the  boy  in  the  grip  of  a huge  tiger  and 
still  struggling  feebly.  I snatched  my  rifle,  raised 
it  and  took  aim.  At  what  ? With  one  bound  the 
monster  had  cleared  the  stream,  bearing  its  prey 
in  its  fearful  jaws,  and  vanished  into  the  jungle. 

A hoarse  roar  of  horror  and  dismay  broke  the 
silence.  All  the  Moi  of  our  escort  were  screaming 
frantically  as  if  suddenly  stricken  with  madness. 

“ The  Lord  Tiger,”  they  yelled,  waving  their 
long  bamboo  poles  in  the  air. 

My  companion  and  I gazed  at  each  other  dumb- 
founded. What  was  to  be  done  ? The  night  was 
now  black,  the  jungle  impenetrable.  Pursuit  under 
such  circumstances  would  be  the  height  of  folly. 
Realizing  that  we  must  wait  for  daylight  and  raging 
at  our  impotence,  we  returned  to  the  camp  fires 
thinking  of  the  ghastly  tragedy  that  was  being  enacted 
behind  that  barricade  of  brambles,  perhaps  only 
a few  yards  away. 

I called  up  the  unhappy  uncle  to  offer  what  con- 
solation I could.  He  was  almost  dumb  with  weeping, 
but  managed  to  inform  me  amid  his  tears  that  the 
same  evil  fate  had  befallen  both  the  father  and  mother 
of  the  poor  boy. 

“ My  brother  should  know,”  he  added  gravely, 
“ that  the  spirits  of  my  relations  who  never  received 


INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS  47 

burial  nor  the  rites  that  were  their  due  have  ong 
demanded  another  companion.” 

At  that  time  I was  profoundly  ignorant  of  beliefs 
and  superstitions  which  came  to  my  notice  later, 
and  I attributed  his  words  to  the  raving  of  a madman. 
Valutioni  soon  enlightened  me,  however,  and  showed 
me  that  not  only  the  Moi  but  most  of  the  Annamites 
also  entertain  the  most  curious  beliefs  on  this  subject. 

They  believe  that  the  spirit  of  a tiger’s  victim 
is  compelled  to  ride  on  the  back  of  his  murderer  and 
guide  it.  Accordingly,  when  a trap  is  being  laid 
the  natives  are  careful  to  sprinkle  a quantity  of  roasted 
maize  around  the  place.  When  the  monster 
approaches  the  spirit  smells  the  grain,  is  warned 
of  the  impending  danger,  and  leaps  off  in  time  to 
avoid  falling  with  the  tiger  into  the  snare. 

The  «tory  may  raise  an  incredulous  smile  but  is 
not  so  fanciful  as  it  sounds.  The  attacks  of  the 
tiger  on  the  Moi  are  so  frequent,  ruthless,  and  cal- 
culated that  a savage  naturally  ascribes  them  to  the 
direct  instigation  and  assistance  of  some  supernatural 
power.  All  Europeans  will  testify  to  the  ferocious 
malevolence  of  the  creatures,  and  many  a traveller 
has  paid  for  his  ignorance  or  carelessness  with  his 
life.  It  was  probably  pure  chance  that  Sao’s  evil 
fate  did  not  befall  my  companion  or  myself. 

It  was  evident  that  while  we  were  enjoying  our 
reckless  bathe  the  tiger  must  have  been  watching 
us  from  the  thicket,  awaiting  a favourable  moment 
to  spring.  With  its  usual  cunning  it  selected  the 


48  INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS 

weakest  for  its  prey,  and  neither  rifles  nor  knives 
would  have  barred  its  path.  The  slightest  wound 
from  its  paw  filled  with  putrefying  matter  is  calculated 
to  bring  tetanus  and  an  agonizing  death. 

Such  was  the  course  of  our  melancholy  reflections 
when  our  attention  was  aroused  to  the  presence  of 
a new  danger  by  the  voices  of  a number  of  coolies 
who  were  arguing  in  undertones.  We  pretended 
to  be  asleep  but  listened  carefully.  They  were 
talking  of  flight. 

Someone  was  seeming  reluctant,  suggesting  that 
the  country  was  strange,  the  tigers  at  large.  The 
whites  had  angered  the  spirits  and  brought  all  this 
evil  upon  them.  It  would  be  better  to  wait  till  the 
morning  and  steal  away  at  daybreak. 

We  realized  that  vigorous  measures  were  called 
for  to  avert  a crisis.  The  nearest  station  was  more 
than  a hundred  miles  away  and  the  country  was 
absolutely  without  resources.  If  our  escort  fled 
we  should  have  to  give  up  the  expedition.  For- 
tunately the  chief  remained  faithful  to  us.  I ordered 
him  to  collect  all  the  identification  cards  which 
every  coolie  carries  wdth  him  in  accordance  with  the 
regulations.  Each  card  recites  the  length  of  the 
finger-joints  of  its  owner  and  is  stamped  with  each 
of  his  finger-prints. 

Deprived  of  their  cards,  our  men  became  as  meek 
as  sheep.  The  prospect  before  them  was  not  inviting. 
They  would  have  to  pay  the  native  equivalent  of 
three  piastres  and  produce  satisfactory  evidence  of 


INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS  49 

identity  in  the  capital  of  the  province  before  a 
duplicate  would  be  supplied,  and  happily  a coolie 
with  three  piastres  is  a rare  phenomenon. 

This  danger  disposed  of,  we  attempted  to  sleep, 
but  all  in  vain.  The  dog  trembled  and  whined  as 
if  scenting  evil.  The  tiger  must  have  been  watching 
us ! 

At  dawn  we  beat  out  the  thickets  and  at  length 
came  upon  the  tiger’s  lair  where,  among  a mass  of 
unrecognizable  remains,  we  distinguished  the  corpse 
of  the  last  victim.  Not  a fragment  of  flesh  was  to 
be  seen  on  the  skull  which  looked  like  an  ivory  ball. 
The  animal’s  rough  tongue  had  literally  scraped  it 
clean.  A few  paces  away  was  a path,  access  to  which 
was  barred  by  the  fallen  trunk  of  an  immense  banian 
struck  by  lightning.  It  was  plain  that  persons  using 
this  path  had  been  unable  to  pass  this  obstacle  and 
had  been  compelled  to  make  a detour  through  the 
thicket.  Hidden  behind  its  bamboo  barrier  the 
tiger  had  watched  them  threading  their  way,  and 
fallen  upon  them  at  the  moment  they  presented 
their  backs  to  it.  We  saw  several  fragments  of 
human  clothing  and  many  bones  to  prove,  if  proof 
were  needed,  that  we  were  on  the  site  of  a veritable 
man-trap. 

We  proceeded  to  give  the  poor  boy  as  decent  a 
burial  as  time  and  the  circumstances  permitted.! 
His  corpse  was  reverently  laid  in  a shroud  of  latanial 
leaves  and  buried  in  a grave  at  the  very  spot  on  which  | 
he  had  met  his  death.  His  uncle  asked  me  for  a* 


4 


so  INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS 


piece  of  drawing  paper,  on  which  he  traced  the  rude 
figure  of  a tiger  with  a pencil.  He  then  drew  three 
figures  on  the  tiger’s  back.  He  explained  to  me 
that  as  the  boy’s  parents  were  both  very  big,  only 
a small  place  remained  on  the  beast’s  back,  quite 
near  the  tail. 

“ That  is  the  reason,”  he  added,  “ that  my  brother, 
the  White  Mandarin,  has  not  been  devoured.  The 
tiger  loves  the  flesh  of  a white  man  far  more  than 
that  of  my  countrymen,  and  if  there  had  been  room 
he  would  doubtless  have  taken  my  brother  for  his 
victim.” 

I could  say  nothing  to  turn  him  from  this  con- 
viction, and  indeed  I knew  that  my  imprudence  in 
bathing  at  so  dangerous  a time  might  very  well  have 
proved  fatal. 

The  old  man  finished  his  drawing  and  then 
solemnly  burnt  it,  scattering  the  fine  ashes  over 
the  tomb  to  the  accompaniment  of  many  prayers. 
When  the  soil  had  aU  been  returned  the  grave- 
diggers strode  several  times  round  the  grave  crying 
to  the  High  and  Mighty  One  to  seek  no  more  victims. 

The  moral  effect  of  this  tragedy  was  so  great  on 
the  Moi  of  our  escort  that  it  seemed  to  me  wiser 
to  suspend  the  expedition  with  a view  to  avenging 
the  boy’s  death  and  restoring  confidence.  Unfor- 
tunately the  Moi  were  even  more  terrified  at  this 
suggestion  and  spared  no  efforts  to  dissuade  me. 
They  feared  the  vengeance  of  the  tiger,  but  I was 
not  to  be  turned  from  my  purpose. 


INDUSTRIES  AND  OCCUPATIONS  51 

I took  up  my  station  in  a tree  and  secured  a fine 
young  roebuck  as  bait.  For  fourteen  nights  I waited 
for  the  tiger  to  come  within  range,  but  it  never 
came.  It  ravaged  the  neighbourhood  frequently, 
startling  the  forest  with  its  roars,  but  we  never  had 
a glimpse  of  it.  At  the  end  of  the  period  the 
escort  became  restive  and  I acceded  to  the  general 
desire  to  strike  our  camp  and  retreat  before  the 
enemy. 

A few  months  later  Lieutenant  Gautier,  another 
member  of  the  mission,  was  devoured  on  the  same 
spot. 


CHAPTER  III 


FAMILY  LIFE 


Diseases  and  their  cure — Betrothal  and  marriage — Adultery — Divorce — 
A Moi  wedding — Birth — Childhood — The  game  of  Pig-Snatcher. 


no  matter  to  what  race  he  may  belong,  will 
deny  that  the  best  way  to  win  his  friendship  is  to 
cure  his  ailments. 

Speaking  for  myself  I habitually  relied  on  my 
medical  knowledge  as  a passport  to  the  approval  of 
the  Moi,  and  I was  rarely  disappointed,  for  invalids 
of  all  sorts  and  conditions  came  daily  to  invoke  the 
aid  of  my  medicine  chest.  Most  of  them  suffered 
from  ailments  caused  by  sudden  changes  of  tempera- 
ture, and  their  scanty  clothing  is  a prolific  source  of 
bronchial  affections.  They  always  came  up  with 
their  hair  in  disorder,  hiding  their  faces  as  a sign  of 
distress,  putting  out  their  tongues,  and  striking  them- 
selves on  the  breast  to  draw  my  attention  to  the  seat 
of  all  their  woe.  They  could  hardly  contain  their 
glee  when  I painted  the  affected  part  with  iodine. 
Their  bronzed  skins  assumed  a violet  hue,  then  turned 
to  browny  red,  assisted  by  their  vigorous  scratching. 


one  with  the  least  experience  of  the  savage. 


52 


FAMILY  LIFE  S3 

Some  came  from  immense  distances  for  ausculta- 
tion, and  my  patients  included  a large  number  of 
women,  inspired,  I think,  more  by  curiosity  than 
any  immediate  necessity,  for  I usually  presented  a 
mirror  to  each  new  patient.  A few  brought  me  their 
aged  parents,  under  the  impression  that  I was  quite 
capable  of  restoring  them  to  youth.  A man  with 
one  arm  came  to  ask  for  another,  a man  with  one  eye 
seemed  astounded  when  I repeated  my  refusal  to 
get  him  a new  one.  I remember  once  a patient 
appearing  who  was  shivering  with  fever.  I gave 
him  a few  grains  of  quinine  and  a glass  of  water  to 
wash  it  down. 

“ Now  whistle,  my  boy.” 

He  whistled  at  once  under  the  impression  that 
this  musical  exercise  was  part  of  the  treatment, 
whereas  in  truth  my  only  object  was  to  make  sure 
that  the  drug  had  really  been  swallowed.  Its  bitter- 
ness had  no  deterrent  effect  whatever,  for  he  stretched 
out  his  hands,  accompanying  the  movement  with  a 
wink  which  means  in  all  languages ; “ I can  do  with 
as  much  as  you  like.” 

In  another  case  a chronic  bronchitis  demanded 
treatment  by  wet-cupping.  A thick  plank  which 
happened  to  be  handy  took  the  place  of  an  operating- 
table,  while  an  empty  Madeira  glass  had  to  perform 
the  functions  of  the  cupping-glasses  of  which  I was 
destitute. 

Lack  of  cleanliness  and  ordinary  precautions  is 
mainly  responsible  for  the  fatal  outcome  of  so  many 


54 


FAMILY  LIFE 


of  the  more  serious  complaints.  Even  the  most 
trifling  ailments  last  an  abnormal  time,  but  I soon 
proved  that  with  reasonable  treatment  the  adult 
Moi  easily  shakes  off  quite  virulent  diseases.  The 
race  is,  in  fact,  submitted  to  a process  of  strict  selec- 
tion by  the  mortality  among  the  infants,  which  is 
very  high.  Only  the  hardiest  specimens  survive 
their  childhood  and  are  all  the  more  fitted  to  resist 
the  attacks  of  disease. 

Infants  are  fed  in  the  most  ignorant  and  reckless 
manner,  hence  the  prevalence  of  gastro-enteritis 
and  rickets.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Moi  suffer 
considerably  less  from  malaria  than  the  Annamites 
and  the  Chinese.  Tuberculosis  is  uncommon  and 
where  found  carries  off  its  victims  with  incredible 
rapidity. 

The  use  of  simples  is  not  unknown  and  some  of 
the  less  complicated  ailments  have  been  successfully 
treated  by  this  method.  In  general,  however,  all 
diseases  are  attributed  to  the  displeasure  of  the  Spirits, 
a superstition  which  the  Sorcerer  habitually  turns 
to  his  own  advantage. 

At  first  we  had  the  greatest  difficulty  in  inducing 
the  natives  to  submit  to  vaccination.  The  story 
was  busily  circulated  that  the  mark  left  by  inocula- 
tion was  a badge  of  servitude,  and  it  was  some  time 
before  we  succeeded  in  exposing  the  fallacy. 

Among  certain  Moi  groups,  such  as  the  Sedang, 
Dj  arai  and  Rognao  of  the  lower  lakes,  it  is  usual  for 
the  boys  to  sleep  in  a special  hut  after  puberty  has 


Birth  Ceremonies  : Carrying  Fuel  to  a Young  Mother. 


The  Wife  of  a Moi  Chief.  A Little  Moi  Family. 


FAMILY  LIFE 


SS 


been  reached.  The  primary  purpose  of  this  custom 
is  to  prevent  sexual  intercourse  before  marriage,  but 
it  is  quite  ineffectual  to  prevent  the  girls  from  meeting 
their  lovers  on  the  sly.  The  usual  result  is  that  the 
mother  generally  kills  her  firstborn,  as  no  one  comes 
forward  to  claim  the  fatherhood. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  Moi  seems  to 
attach  no  importance  to  feminine  chastity.  Marriage 
is  only  the  consecration  of  a cohabitation  of  long 
standing,  and  sometimes  there  are  several  children 
of  the  union  before  either  party  thinks  of  putting 
it  on  a legal  footing. 

As  a rule,  a man  must  take  his  wife  from  the  same 
group,  or,  in  other  words,  endogamy  is  de  rigueur. 
The  only  connecting  links  with  other  groups  are 
the  alliances  with  female  slaves,  to  which  the  woman 
need  not  be  a consenting  party.  The  consequence 
is  that  all  the  inhabitants  of  a region  are  related. 
We  have  often  tried  to  decide  the  vexed  question  as 
to  whether  this  consanguinity  exercises  a good  or 
bad  influence  on  the  progress  of  the  race,  but  it  is 
impossible  to  say  more  than  that  the  evidence  is 
inconclusive. 

Some  European  travellers,  who,  like  myself,  have 
resided  among  the  Moi,  say  that  marriages  are  for- 
bidden between  first  cousins  on  the  mother’s  side. 
They  deduce  from  this  fact  that  the  natives  consider 
the  part  played  by  the  mother  in  the  transmission 
of  hereditary  qualities  more  important  than  that 
of  the  father. 


56 


FAMILY  LIFE 


This  theory,  interesting  and  valuable  as  it  might 
be  if  it  applied  to  a race  in  a higher  stage  of  develop- 
ment, is  probably  unsound  with  regard  to  the  Moi, 
the  phenomenon  on  which  it  is  based  being  probably 
merely  the  effect  of  coincidence.  There  has  been 
an  increasing  tendency  of  late  years  to  attribute  to 
half-civilized  races  scientific  knowledge  which  we 
have  only  recently  acquired  ourselves,  and  to  consider 
certain  customs  and  beliefs  primitive  merely  because 
they  are  ignorant  and  coarse.  Both  tendencies  are 
liable  to  lead  to  error  and  require  careful  watching. 
In  nine  cases  out  of  ten  such  customs  are  not  inspired 
by  any  exact  knowledge  of  physiological  phenomena 
at  all. 

Only  a few  groups  permit  exogamy,  that  is  marriages^ 
with  others  than  members  of  the  clan,  and  even  where  | 
the  system  persists  it  does  not  seem  to  be  due  to  any  ■ 
defined  totemic  rule.  i‘ 

Totemism  is  a semi-magical,  semi-religious  system 
which  is  based  on  the  belief  in  a bond  of  relationship 
between  a group  of  human  beings  and  some  species 
of  animal  regarded  as  protector,  “ totem.”  It  has 
been  noticed  that  a characteristic  feature  of  totem- 
ism is  the  prohibition  of  marriages  between  men  and 
women  with  the  same  totem  and  therefore  belonging 
to  the  same  clan. 

The  Moi  are  a strictly  monogamous  people,  for  ' 
the  very  natural  reason  that  the  males  outnumber 
the  females,  and  this  again  for  the  equally  natural 
reason  that  the  men  are  hardier  and  more  able  to 


FAMILY  LIFE 


57 


I survive  the  manifold  mischances  of  infancy.  Another 
* contributory  cause  to  their  moderation  in  the  matter 
; of  wives  is  their  financial  disability  to  keep  more  than 
j one.  But  it  is  not  a matter  of  principle,  and  a man 
would  not  hesitate  to  add  to  his  stock  if  a sudden 
windfall  made  it  possible. 

A woman’s  commercial  value  depends  on  her 
age  and  social  condition  and  varies  also  in  different 
localities.  In  most  cases  she  is  paid  for  in  instal- 
ments to  her  parents,  for  the  future  husband  is  too 
poor  to  give  the  presents  which  constitute  the  pur- 
chase price,  and  his  only  resource  is  to  sell  his  labour 
j to  pay  off  the  debt.  Accordingly  there  is  a stage 
more  or  less  prolonged  during  which  the  young  man 
I combines  wooing  and  the  duties  of  maid-of-all-work 
in  the  home  of  his  beloved.  No  arrangement  could 
be  happier  in  this  country  where  labour  is  scarce. 
The  reaL  object,  however,  of  this  cohabitation  on 
trial  is  to  make  sure  that  the  characters  of  the  two 
young  people  will  harmonize  and  that  their  affections 
will  survive  continuous  personal  contact.  Here,  as 
elsewhere,  there  are  cynics  who  say  that  familiarity 
breeds  contempt. 

If  the  engagement  is  broken  off  the  man  must 
pay  an  indemnity  fixed  beforehand.  He  pays  his 
pig  and  takes  his  leave. 

This  custom  is  also  in  vogue  among  the  Annamites, 
who  call  it  “ The  Son-in-Law  in  the  making.”  A 
similar  institution  is  found  even  to-day  in  France, 
in  certain  villages  of  Haute-Savoie.  The  future 


58  FAMILY  LIFE 

son-in-law  comes  to  reside  with  his  future  wife’s 
parents.  In  popular  phraseology  he  “ makes  the 
goat’s  marriage.”  The  allusion  becomes  clear  when 
we  know  that  in  this  country  it  is  usual  to  lead  the 
he-goat  to  the  she-goat,  whereas  in  the  case  of  other 
animals,  such  as  bulls  and  horses,  the  female  is  always 
taken  to  the  male. 

Returning  to  the  question  of  a woman’s  commercial 
value,  I made  inquiries  in  every  province  we  visited, 
but  found  it  seldom  higher  than  the  equivalent  of 
fifty  francs. 

The  final  act  that  seals  the  marriage  compact  is 
a reciprocal  scratching.  While  I was  still  in  ignor- 
ance of  this  custom  I received  a severe  rebuff  from 
a girl  to  whom  I offered  some  ointment  for  the 
scratches  that  disfigured  her  face.  She  refused  it 
with  scorn,  for  the  nail-marks  with  which  her  lover 
had  adorned  her  cheeks  were,  in  her  eyes,  no  other 
than  his  signature  to  the  marriage-contract. 

The  rites  and  customs  relative  to  betrothal  and 
marriage  vary  greatly  in  different  parts  of  the  country 
and  among  different  groups.  One  rule,  however, 
is  universal,  and  that  is  that  the  first  step  must  be 
taken  by  the  man’s  parents,  who  approach  those  of 
the  girl,  not  without  trepidation  at  the  outset,  for 
nothing  is  more  humiliating  than  to  be  rejected. 
Accordingly  the  first  interview  is  popularly  dubbed 
the  “ Visit  of  the  little  gift  of  betel  to  the  little 
garden  gate.” 

If  the  parents’  advances  are  received  with  favour 


FAMILY  LIFE 


59 


ia  second  visit  follows  and  the  presents  are  more 
'valuable  than  on  the  first  occasion,  generally  including 
chickens,  rice,  and  still  more  betel.  This  last  sub- 
stance is  considered  throughout  the  Far  East  as  the 
emblem  of  fidelity. 

The  dowry  is  met  with  only  among  the  more 
prosperous  groups.  Of  course  it  is  the  future 
husband  who  provides  it,  a far  more  reasonable 
arrangement  than  that  with  which  we  are  familiar 
in  Europe.  In  this  happy  land  worldly  considerations 
count  for  nothing ; dressmakers  and  fashion-plates 
are  unknown.  The  most  expensive  jewellery  is  of 
copper,  the  finest  coiffures  are  the  superb  orchids 
which  abound  in  the  forests.  There  is  no  need  to 
save  up  for  the  children  to  come.  Books  are  unknown. 
The  sons  will  learn  to  hunt,  their  sole  education, 
and  the  girls  will  be  taught  to  spin  and  weave.  Far 
from  being  a burden  to  her  husband  a wife  is  his 
most  valuable  assistant,  so  it  is  only  fair  that  the 
husband  should  make  some  compensation  to  her 
parents  for  the  loss  he  occasions  to  them. 

The  Moi,  thanks  to  the  kindly  influences  of  the 
Laotians,  have  a much  higher  idea  of  the  status  of 
womanhood  than  their  neighbours  the  Annamites. 
The  husband  always  takes  his  wife  into  his  confidence 
and  consults  her  in  all  the  crises  of  life,  and  the  wives 
reward  their  husbands  with  a very  high  degree  of 
fidelity.  I remember  one  occasion  when  I offered 
ii  trifling  gift  to  the  wife  of  one  of  our  coolies.  She 
refused  it  point  blank  with  the  one  word  “ bao  ” 


6o 


FAMILY  LIFE 


(“  I am  married  ”).  She  was  not  familiar  with  our 
gallant  European  manners,  and  regarded  the  accep- 
tance of  a present  from  a man  as  the  first  step  towards 
the  rupture  of  the  marriage  tie. 

The  penalty  of  adultery  is  renowned  for  its 
severity.  There  was  a woman  in  our  camp  who 
was  feeding  her  new-born  baby.  One  night  I was 
roused  by  a succession  of  screams,  and  thinking  that 
a fire  must  have  broken  out,  I called  my  boy  and 
asked  him  the  cause  of  the  disturbance.  He  adopted 
a tone  of  lofty  cynicism  and  told  me  that  a husband 
was  thrashing  his  unfaithful  wife.  Next  day  the 
woman  was  unable  to  go  to  work  and  the  child  was 
nowhere  to  be  seen.  It  seems  that  her  husband  had 
suddenly  conceived  doubts  as  to  its  paternity,  and, 
suspecting  his  wife  of  adultery  with  an  Annamite  , 
soldier  who  was  in  our  escort,  he  had  turned  himselfj  | 
into  an  instrument  of  justice,  beaten  her  without'  ; 
pity  and  cut  the  baby’s  throat.  I complained  off  | 
his  conduct  to  the  Pholy  (village  chief),  but  far  from!  j 
taking  any  proceedings  he  delivered  himself  in  these 
words  : “ My  only  regret  is  that  the  betrayed  husband 
did  not  kill  both  the  adulteress  and  her  paramour.” 

I learnt  thereby  that  the  Moi  regard  an  act  which 
may  enfeeble  the  race  as  a crime  against  the  com- 
munity and  punishable  with  the  utmost  severity. 
The  Annamites  take  a similar  view,  for  their  code 
provides  no  punishment  for  a husband  who  kills' 
an  adulterous  wife  and  her  paramour  if  caught  in 
the  act.  The  other  alternative  is  to  arraign  them 


FAMILY  LIFE 


6i 


before  the  provincial  tribunal,  which  usually  means 
a sentence  of  ninety  strokes  with  the  lash.  In  most 
cases  this  severe  penalty  has  fatal  results,  but  it  may 
always  be  compounded  at  the  price  of  one  franc  per 
stroke,  the  redemption  money  being  paid  to  the 
husband  as  damages. 

Divorce  is  easy  and  can  be  demanded  at  the 
instance  of  either  party  or  by  mutual  consent.  The 
village  elders  meet  to  hear  the  charges  and  complaints 
and  assess  the  amount  of  compensation.  If  the 
dissolution  of  the  marital  tie  is  the  wish  of  both, 
the  care  of  the  younger  children  is  confided  to  the 
mother,  that  of  the  elder  to  the  father.  Divorces, 
however,  are  uncommon.  The  husband  does  not 
want  one,  for  it  will  be  difficult  to  replace  the  partner 
who  represents  half  his  capital  and  perhaps  all  his 
labour.  The  wife  is  equally  reluctant  whatever 
her  sorrows  may  be,  for  any  change  may  easily 
be  for  the  worse.  If  she  marries  another  she  will 
be  little  more  than  his  humble  slave.  All  the  heavy 
farm  and  household  work  falls  on  her  shoulders, 
including  arduous  duties  which  in  civilized  countries 
are  assigned  exclusively  to  men.  She  crushes  the 
rice,  shells  the  corn,  attends  to  the  harvest  and  assists 
in  clearing  the  brushwood.  Pregnancy  makes  no 
difference  to  the  burden  of  her  daily  tasks  except 
for  the  entirely  inadequate  period  essential  to  delivery. 

If  the  husband’s  means  permit  she  will  have  no 
objection  to  his  taking  a companion  to  himself. 
On  the  contrary,  the  newcomer  will  be  an  addition 


62 


FAMILY  LIFE 


to  the  household  staff  to  whom  she  will  assign  the 
largest  burdens.  She  knows  that  as  first  wife  her 
position  will  never  be  seriously  challenged,  and  as 
undisputed  mistress  of  the  household  she  will 
exercise  authority  over  the  other  “ wives.”  This 
unwritten  law  prevails  throughout  the  Far  East. 
A widow  has  little  difficulty  in  remarrying,  as  the 
area  of  choice  is  extensive,  owing  to  the  numerical 
superiority  of  the  men. 

I was  once  honoured  with  an  invitation  to  a Moi 
wedding.  It  was  in  the  village  of  Lebouy  where  I 
resided  for  some  time,  and  my  host  was  no  other 
than  the  chief  himself,  who  couched  his  request  in 
the  following  terms  : 

“ My  elder  brother,  the  great  Giver  of  Tobacco  ” 
(this  being  the  name  under  which  I was  popularly 
known),  “ will,  I hope,  do  me  the  honour  of  sharing  a 
buffalo  which  I propose  to  offer  up  at  the  marriage 
of  my  daughter.” 

It  would  have  been  ungracious  to  decline  an  invi- 
tation expressed  in  terms  of  such  old-world  courtesy. 
I exhibited  my  appreciation  of  the  honour  by  offering 
him  a large  glass  of  Madeira.  He  hesitated  at  first, 
then  squatted  on  the  ground  as  a compliment  to  the 
excellence  of  the  liquor,  took  the  glass  gingerly 
in  his  hand  and  slowly  emptied  it.  The  slaves  who 
formed  his  bodyguard  watched  him  wdth  evident 
admiration. 

The  evening  before  the  wedding  the  bride-elect 
went  to  the  banks  of  the  Da-Nhim,  a river  which 


FAMILY  LIFE 


63 

flows  at  a distance  of  a few  hundred  yards  from  the 
village.  All  her  relations  formed  themselves  into 
an  escort,  for  it  is  absolutely  imperative  that  the 
whole  family  should  be  present  at  the  kind  of  ritual 
bathe  on  which  she  was  bent.  The  entire  company 
plunged  into  the  water,  and  after  a few  seconds  of 
merry  splashing  emerged  and  dried  in  the  sun. 

The  opening  item  of  the  next  day’s  festivities  was 
the  slaughter  of  the  buffalo  which  is,  so  to  speak, 
the  foundation  of  the  feast.  The  young  warriors 
of  the  village  armed  with  lances  formed  a circle 
round  the  victim  and  hurled  their  weapons  in  turn, 
until  at  length  one  struck  a vital  part  and  the  beast 
fell  over  dead.  The  carcase  was  dragged  to  the 
foot  of  a pole  wreathed  round  with  bamboo-shoots, 
and  the  amateur  butchers  proceeded  to  cut  it  up 
into  strips,  of  which  some  were  reserved  to  be  smoked 
at  a later  stage. 

The  nuptial  ceremony  proper  then  began  and 
was  marked  by  an  extreme  simplicity.  The  Guru, 
or  Sorcerer,  placed  the  couple  and  their  parents 
before  a row  of  lofty  posts  adorned  with  the  horns 
of  recently  killed  buffaloes.  With  great  solemnity 
he  then  drew  his  knife,  «eized  a white  cock  and  cut 
off  its  head,  throwing  the  body  over  his  right  shoulder. 
The  headless  bird  struggled  for  a moment,  flapped 
its  wings  in  a last  spasm,  and  finally  remained  motion- 
less on  its  breast  on  the  ground.  The  Sorcerer  spat 
into  a copper  vase,  not  so  much  to  relieve  his  feelings 
as  in  satisfaction,  for  the  victim’s  position  foretold 


FAMILY  LIFE 


64 

a numerous  posterity  to  the  young  couple.  He 
then  took  a cotton  thread  and  bound  the  right  hand 
of  the  man  to  the  left  hand  of  the  woman.  This 
act  made  them  man  and  wife  and  was  of  the  same 
force  as  the  exchange  of  rings  in  our  own  country. 
A rapid  invocation  to  the  Spirits  of  the  Hearth 
followed,  and  then  the  feast  began. 

First  I was  requested  to  take  my  place  on  a rush 
mat  under  a huge  shed  built  for  the  occasion.  A 
number  of  women  appeared  bringing  fried  locusts, 
spices,  bitter  oranges,  spirits  of  rice  and  meat,  almost 
raw  and  cut  into  strips.  The  newly  married  couple 
overwhelmed  each  other  with  attentions,  filled  each 
other’s  mouths  with  rice  and  accepted  in  good  part 
the  food  which  all  their  friends  and  relations  thought 
it  necessary  to  offer  them.  Perhaps  this  rite  is  a 
symbol  of  the  principle  of  mutual  help  which  ought 
to  actuate  not  merely  a family  but  also  tribes  and 
nations. 

Meanwhile  a woman  was  conducting  an  orchestra 
of  four  all  but  naked  boys  who  beat  a tattoo  on  huge 
gongs.  Lest  this  should  become  monotonous  a 
musician  played  a melody  in  the  minor  mode  and  not 
without  a strange  haunting  charm.  The  instrument 
was  a large  empty  gourd  on  which  three  bamboo 
tubes  were  fastened.  The  range  of  this  original  organ 
was  confined  to  five  notes,  but  the  tones  blended 
pleasantly  and  in  spite  of  the  dragging  time  the  tune 
was  anything  but  discordant. 

We  encouraged  this  artist  with  an  offer  of  some 


■ 


A Sorcerer  performing  the  Marriage  Ceremony  before  the  Sacrificial  Posts. 


[7o  face  p.  64, 


over  the  Remains  of  the  Wedding  Feast. 


FAMILY  LIFE 


65 


cigarettes,  and  presently  he  began  to  play  for  a dance, 
of  which  the  principal  movements  seemed  to  be 
raising  the  feet  in  turn,  and  striking  the  ground  with 
the  heels  or  a stick.  These  operations  became  more 
rapid  and  ended  with  a tremendous  contortion  of  the 
whole  body.  It  reminded  me  forcibly  of  the  well- 
known  “ bear  dance,”  and  is  not  peculiar  to  the  Moi, 
being  also  popular  in  Thibet. 

Both  the  musician  and  the  dancer  were  rewarded 
with  the  most  unstinted  applause  and  invited  to  take 
a well-earned  rest  in  view  of  the  orgy  which  now 
followed.  On  such  an  occasion  the  Moi  regard  so- 
briety as  an  insult  to  the  host,  and  indeed  the  charge 
could  not  have  been  levelled  at  any  of  the  guests 
then  assembled.  The  last  stage  of  the  proceedings 
was  the  distribution  of  presents,  for  interest  can 
always  seal  the  bonds  of  friendship.  At  a given  signal 
the  husband  flung  lemons,  mangoes,  areca  nuts  and 
other  fruits  among  the  crowd,  w'ho  scrambled  for 
them  without  the  least  regard  for  order  or  good 
manners.  For  some  moments  a free  fight  seemed 
imminent,  but  good  humour  finally  prevailed  and 
the  combatants  dispersed  chewing  the  inevitable 
betel  and  bidding  each  other  an  inebriated  farewell. 

Among  the  Moi,  as  everywhere  else,  the  birth  of 
a child  is  an  occasion  for  rejoicing  both  to  the  family 
and  the  village.  Such  is  the  fear  that  malevolent 
spirits  will  assail  the  mother  during  the  critical  period 
that  a special  hut  is  made  for  her  accommodation 
and  all  strangers  are  forbidden  to  enter  the  village 

5 


66 


FAMILY  LIFE 


itself.  This  prohibition,  or  “ taboo,”  is  known  as 
“ Dieng  ” in  some  regions  and  as  “ Calam  ” in  others. 
The  experienced  traveller  will  never  dream  of 
attempting  to  evade  it  and  expose  himself  to  a summary 
vengeance  at  the  hands  of  the  inhabitants,  who  are 
under  orders  to  see  it  enforced.  Foreigners  stand 
in  no  privileged  position  and  we  ourselves  had  frequent 
occasion  to  bewail  this  absurd  regulation.  Imagine 
our  rage  after  a hard  day’s  march  under  a tropical 
sun  or  soaked  by  torrential  rains  when  we  found  our- 
selves condemned  to  spend  the  night  perched  in  trees 
for  fear  of  tigers,  with  the  fires  of  a tabooed  village 
burning  almost  under  our  noses  ! The  punishment 
of  Tantalus  was  nothing  to  this,  and  little  consolation 
is  to  be  derived  from  inveighing  against  the  ignorance 
which  is  the  offspring  of  such  blind  superstition. 

The  house  in  which  the  mother-to-be  is  lodged  is 
distinguished  from  the  others  by  a tuft  of  pompel- 
moose  and  a piece  of  charcoal  suspended  from  the 
roof.  About  the  time  when  the  happy  event  is  to 
take  place  all  the  inhabitants  forgather  in  a special 
place  to  await  the  good  news. 

Even  to-day  in  certain  European  countries  custom 
forbids  the  husband  and  family  to  be  present  during 
labour. 

If  the  group  is  not  altogether  destitute,  sacrifices 
must  be  offered  to  conciliate  the  Spirits,  especially 
if  it  seems  likely  that  complications  are  threatening. 
Of  course,  the  villagers  offer  no  more  than  they  can 
help.  The  bidding,  so  to  speak,  for  divine  favour 


FAMILY  LIFE  67 

generally  starts  with  an  egg  and  rises  if  the  complica- 
tions continue.  The  egg  will  be  followed  by  a 
chicken,  then  a goat,  then  a pig,  and  finally  an  ox  in 
cases  of  extreme  necessity. 

Only  the  woman’s  nearest  relations  are  allowed  to 
be  present  at  the  accouchement,  for  which  she  assumes 
a sitting  position.  As  soon  as  labour  begins  they  rub 
her  stomach  from  top  to  bottom  with  tiger’s  gut 
and  make  her  lean  against  the  knees  of  a female  nurse. 
This  is  not  a universal  practice,  for  in  the  North, 
among  the  Tho,  for  example,  the  woman  stands 
supported  by  two  cords  passed  under  her  armpits. 
Immediately  after  the  birth  the  child  is  washed 
and  anointed  with  cocoa-nut  oil.  The  navel-string 
is  then  cut  with  a sharpened  bamboo  and  the  severed 
end  tied  up  with  a cotton  thread  or  a blade  of  long 
grass.  The  placenta  is  buried  either  in  the  house 
itself  or  in  some  place  adjacent. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  these  rites  with  those 
which  accompany  the  same  event  among  certain 
African  races.  Among  the  Bushongo  of  the  Belgian 
Congo  the  woman  adopts  a sitting  position  and  is 
supported  by  the  knees  of  a midwife.  The  placenta 
is  likewise  buried  and  also,  at  a later  stage,  the  fore- 
skin of  the  child,  if  male.  In  Mandeling  (on  the 
western  frontier  of  Sumatra)  the  child  is  first  washed 
and  then  kept  in  confinement  in  the  house,  the  natives 
claiming  that  this  procedure  secures  the  child  against 
evil  influences. 

After  delivery  the  Moi  woman  lies  on  a low  bed 

5* 


68 


FAMILY  LIFE 


and  a fire  is  kept  burning  at  her  side  day  and  night, 
the  ashes  from  which  are  left  smouldering  in  earthen- 
ware vases  to  keep  the  room  at  an  even  temperature. 
The  smoke  is  supposed  to  act  as  an  antiseptic.  All 
the  young  woman’s  friends  demonstrate  their  devotion 
by  bringing  wood  for  the  fire,  taking  care  to  select 
the  dead  branches  of  certain  species  of  trees.  Drift- 
ing logs  from  a river  must  on  no  account  be  used. 
They  bring  fearful  convulsions  and  certain  death  to 
the  child. 

A potion  composed  of  simples  which  stimulate  the 
circulation  is  now  administered  to  the  invalid  and 
the  effect  is  augmented  by  rubbing  her  all  over  with 
ginger.  Her  first  meal  consists  of  ginger,  eggs  and 
rice.  She  is  allowed  to  drink  a concoction  made 
from  the  horns  of  a young  stag.  Strange  as  it  may 
sound,  this  beverage  is  a valuable  tonic,  which  we 
ourselves  used  at  times  with  great  effect. 

Ten  or  fifteen  days  after  the  birth  the  woman 
resumes  her  usual  arduous  occupations.  The  baby 
is  hung  on  her  back  in  a little  cloth  sack,  secured 
over  her  shoulders  to  her  girdle.  His  feet  dangle 
on  each  side  of  her,  and  in  this  position  he  passes  the 
days  cradled  by  his  nurse’s  movements. 

The  child  is  fed  at  the  breast  until  between  two  or 
three  years  of  age,  a custom  which  is  a great  strain 
on  the  mother.  To  lessen  this  she  gives  him  manioc 
and  rice,  taking  care  to  soften  them  in  her  own  mouth 
first.  The  net  result  is  that  the  baby’s  stomach 
attains  an  unnatural  size  and  his  digestive  organs  suffer. 


FAMILY  LIFE 


69 

The  nursling’s  first  meal  is  the  occasion  of  a special 
ceremony.  The  mother  is  not  yet  ready  to  feed  him 
herself,  so  the  duty  falls  on  one  of  her  attendants, 
who  takes  her  seat  on  an  upturned  earthenware  jar. 
The  position  of  this  jar  is  highly  significant  in  the 
eyes  of  the  Moi.  A jar  so  placed  can  hold  no  water. 
Similarly  a child’s  stomach  can  hold  no  food,  for  it 
empties  itself  as  fast  as  it  is  filled.  Dyspepsia,  it  would 
appear,  is  unknown  among  this  fortunate  people  ! 
After  this  first  meal  an  attendant  goes  through  the 
pretence  of  flattening  the  child’s  head  against  the 
centre  pole  of  the  hut.  This  is  to  ensure  that  the 
head  may  not  become  pointed  later  on,  a physical 
peculiarity  which  is  regarded  as  a sign  of  bad 
character.  Another  favourite  superstition  in  these 
regions  is  that  certain  odd  numbers  are  lucky  and 
certain  even  numbers  unlucky.  Every  mother  hopes 
to  give  birth  to  a three  or  a seven.  Her  fear  is  that 
the  birth  may  occur  during  the  last  quarter  of  the 
moon.  As  everyone  knows,  this  belief  in  the  efficacy 
of  certain  numbers  is  almost  universal  and  dates  from 
remote  times.  The  Hebrews  and  Egyptians  furnish 
many  examples,  and  many  more  are  met  with  among 
the  peoples  of  the  Far  East.  Thus  the  Brahminic 
Trinity  comprises  three  persons,  Brahma,  Vishnu 
and  Siva.  Angkor  was  built  in  seven  days,  as  the 
Bible  tells.  The  stars  which  the  faithful  of  Asia 
worship  are  seven  in  number. 

The  child  is  not  named  for  the  first  two  years  of 
his  life  and  is  doubtless  happy  enough  to  be  called 


70 


FAMILY  LIFE 


“ Con-Nie,”  which  to  all  intents  and  purposes 
corresponds  to  our  term  “ baby.”  Both  the  Moi 
and  the  Annamites  regard  the  naming  of  a child  as 
a matter  of  great  moment,  for  the  future  depends 
on  a fortunate  choice.  Nothing  can  be  done  before 
the  Sorcerer  has  been  called  in  to  consult  the  Spirits. 
This  official  suggests  a name,  which  is  usually  whispered 
into  his  ear  by  the  mother  or  the  person  who  pre- 
sided at  the  birth.  The  popular  name  for  a boy  is 
“ Squirrel,”  for  a girl  “ Mouse.”  A large  bowl 
filled  with  rice  is  brought  in.  The  Sorcerer  empties 
it,  taking  out  the  grains  two  at  a time.  If  at  the 
end  of  this  operation  only  one  grain  is  left  at  the 
bottom  the  proceedings  must  be  repeated  until  that 
ill-omened  result  does  not  recur.  It  is  not  surprising, 
therefore,  that  occasionally  several  days  elapse  before 
the  ceremony  can  be  continued.  The  Sorcerer  has 
an  interest  in  the  prolongation  of  these  rites,  for 
throughout  the  whole  time  he  is  the  guest  of  the 
family.  If  the  child  dies  or  is  attacked  by  one  of 
the  infantile  affections  so  common  in  this  treacherous 
climate  the  mischance  is  attributed  to  the  choice  of 
an  unlucky  name.  The  only  hope  is  to  change  it  at 
once,  which  involves  a repetition  of  the  ritual 
rigmarole. 

When  the  child  is  old  enough  to  bear  a light  burden 
he  will  carry  on  his  back  a basket,  or  even  a younger 
brother,  securely  rolled  up  in  a kind  of  sack.  Nothing 
could  be  more  amusing  than  the  solemnity  with  which 
the  youngster  performs  his  function  of  dry  nurse. 


FAMILY  LIFE 


71 


Among  certain  groups  the  children’s  hair  is  always 
kept  short  except  for  a long  wisp  at  the  crown, 
which  gives  them  a curiously  old  look. 

Clothing  is  forgotten,  as  a rule,  till  the  sixth  year 
is  past.  Sometimes  a metal  disc  is  hung  from  a cord 
round  the  waist,  and  a favourite  ornament  is  an 
anklet  of  iron  with  a small  bell  attached,  which  is 
made  and  fitted  by  the  village  blacksmith.  It  is  a 
badge  of  servitude,  for  henceforth  the  child  is  devoted 
to  the  service  of  the  Spirits,  who,  in  return,  make  him 
an  object  of  their  peculiar  care. 

During  their  early  years  the  boys  are  active  and 
intelligent  and  readily  absorb  knowledge  of  all  kinds, 
but  as  manhood  approaches  they  become  apathetic, 
lazy  and  incapable  of  sustained  effort.  I once  under- 
took the  experiment  of  training  a boy  to  act  as  my 
servant.  He  was  about  twelve  years  old,  with  a re- 
markably bright  face,  and  very  quick  and  graceful 
in  his  movements.  In  a short  time  he  had  learnt 
to  read  and  count.  His  eyesight  was  so  good  that 
we  always  used  him  when  taking  sights  for  our 
geodetical  instruments.  He  was  never  happier  than 
when  I gave  him  a rifle  to  carry  during  our  shooting- 
parties.  After  a year,  however,  his  character  changed 
completely.  He  became  intractable  and  moody,  and 
fiercely  resented  any  criticism.  We  were  a long  way 
from  his  tribe  and  he  could  not  return  home  except 
through  a forest  infested  with  tigers.  The  prospect 
of  a long  and  dangerous  journey  seemed  to  have  no 
terrors  for  him.  He  begged  me  to  let  him  go,  and 


72 


FAMILY  LIFE 


jumped  with  joy  when  I gave  my  permission.  In  a 
twinkling  he  was  out  of  his  European  clothes  and 
had  donned  the  old  loin-cloth,  which  he  had  pre- 
served with  the  greatest  care  as  a mark  of  race.  He 
bowed  three  times,  took  up  his  basket  and  disappeared 
with  every  expression  of  jubilation.  His  obvious 
glee  was  some  consolation  for  the  annoyance  his 
departure  caused  me,  for  I had  set  my  heart  on 
softening  his  savage  nature  and  winning  his  affection. 
It  was  with  real  regret  that  I confessed  myself  beaten. 
On  the  other  side  of  the  account  must  be  placed  the 
feat  of  Madame  Cunhac,  the  wife  of  one  of  our 
governors,  who  successfully  brought  up  a Moi  girl. 
The  child  grew  to  have  an  unshaken  belief  in  her 
mistress  and  followed  her  about  like  a faithful  dog, 
showing  her  affection  and  gratitude  on  every  possible 
occasion,  nor  could  she  be  induced  to  return  to  her 
village  by  threats  or  bribes. 

A child  receives  nothing  that  can  be  dignified 
with  the  name  of  education.  His  incessant  occupa- 
tion consists  of  playing  all  day  with  his  little  com- 
panions. Many  of  the  games  played  are  extremely 
interesting  and  we  spent  many  an  hour  in  the  evening 
watching  them.  Perhaps  the  favourite  is  a game  | 
they  call  “ The  Pig-Snatcher,”  in  which  there  are  | 
three  principal  dramatis  -personce,  the  Snatcher,  the  j 
Shopkeeper  and  the  Pig.  The  greatest  competition  / 
is  for  the  position  of  the  two  former,  so  the  candidates  1 
are  subjected  to  a preliminary  trial.  They  all  take  ^ 
turns  at  catching  a twig  on  a long  pole  and  balancing 


FAMILY  LIFE 


73 


it,  and  the  two  most  expert  are  rewarded  with  the 
roles  of  Shopkeeper  and  Snatcher  respectively.  The 
next  plays  the  part  of  the  Pig,  which  consists  of  saying 
nothing,  but  grunting  vigorously  at  intervals. 

The  unsuccessful  candidates  join  hands  and  make 
a ring  round  the  lucky  three. 

The  Snatcher  now  approaches  with  slow  steps  and 
interrogates  the  Shopkeeper  as  follows : 

“ Hello,  maternal  aunt  ! Please  give  me  some  fire.” 
“ O elderly  brother,  the  fire  is  under  the  ashes.” 

“ Well,  then,  give  me  a gourd  of  water.” 

“ The  water  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  well.” 

“ Then  give  me  a guava.” 

“ The  guava  is  still  on  the  tree.” 

Feigning  dismay  at  these  repeated  rebuffs  the 
Snatcher  takes  a few  steps  backwards  and  suddenly 
stops,  for  the  Pig,  in  the  person  of  a small  urchin 
of  barely  five  years  old,  gives  forth  a timid  grunt. 

“ What  is  the  animal  I hear  in  your  stable  ? ” 

“ It  is  a spotted  pig.” 

“ What  kind  of  spots  has  it  ? ” 

“ Red  on  its  paws  and  white  on  its  tail.  It  has 
every  perfection,  and  the  less  I feed  it  the  fatter 
it  gets.” 

“ Really ! Will  you  take  a Mat  for  it  ? ” (A 
Mat  is  a piece  of  iron  which  is  used  for  exchange 
and  worth  about  a penny.) 

“ No,  it  is  not  for  sale.” 

The  dialogue  continues,  the  Snatcher  increasing 
his  offer  up  to  a set  of  gongs,  but  the  Shopkeeper 


74 


FAMILY  LIFE 


is  not  to  be  tempted.  At  length  the  Snatcher  is 
weary  and  pretends  to  leave  the  shop.  The  game 
seems  to  be  over,  but  the  children  enjoy  it  too  much 
to  allow  it  to  be  cut  short,  so  there  is  a general  burst 
of  laughter  when  the  Shopkeeper  in  her  most 
wheedling  voice  recalls  the  customer  before  he  has 
proceeded  very  far. 

“ Here,  Pig-Snatcher,  come  in  ! I have  changed 
my  mind  and  I will  sell  it  to  you  for  a broken  cup.” 

The  Snatcher,  delighted  at  this  unexpected  turn 
of  events,  hastens  to  secure  his  prize,  but  is  prevented 
from  moving  out  of  the  circle  formed  by  the  children. 
He  clasps  a girl  of  about  twelve  who  represents  one 
of  the  doors  of  the  house  and  shakes  her  by  the 
shoulders. 

“ What  is  this  door  made  of  .J*  ” he  asks. 

“ It  is  of  ironwood,”  replies  the  Shopkeeper. 
Burglary  in  that  quarter  is  doomed  to  failure,  he 
thinks,  and  finds  a younger  girl. 

“ Of  what  wood  is  this  one  ? ” 

“ Teak.” 

“ Still  too  strong.  What  of  this  third  ? ” 

“ It  is  made  of  rotten  fibres,”  the  Shopkeeper 
cries. 

On  that  the  encircling  chain  snaps  suddenly. 
The  Snatcher,  who  is  no  other  than  the  Tiger  in 
human  form,  darts  at  the  Pig.  Despairing  squeals. 
A savage  roar.  The  village  dogs  appear  upon  the 
scene,  and  amid  peals  of  merry  laughter  the  game 
comes  to  an  end. 


CHAPTER  IV 

SOCIAL  LIFE 

Property — Slavery — Utilitarian  morals — A bashful  race — The  Levirate — 
Law  and  custom — An  amateur  arbitrator — Principles  and  practice 
of  the  Ordeal. 

'pHE  Moi  who  inhabit  the  more  northerly  portion 
of  this  country  have  largely  fallen  under  the 
domination  of  their  neighbours  the  Laotians.  In 
the  south,  however,  in  spite  of  their  proximity  to 
the  warlike  and  powerful  Annamites,  the  Moi  have, 
to  a large  degree,  resisted  absorption  and  preserved 
their  independence.  Consequently  their  immemorial 
institutions  have  survived  the  chances  and  changes 
of  the  centuries  without  appreciable  modification. 

The  unit  of  administration  is  the  village,  which 
forms  a kind  of  anarchical  republic  with  a nominal 
chief  who  is  elected.  As  a general  rule  these  shadow 
potentates  are  chosen  either  for  their  physical  prowess 
or  reputed  moral  superiority.  The  Chief’s  powers 
are  not  transferable  and  lapse  on  his  death. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  several  villages  of  the 
same  region  are  united  by  community  of  interests 
or  family  alliances.  The  union  is  then  cemented 

75 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


76 

by  the  formation  of  a league  with  a view  to  defence 
against  common  enemies.  From  such  associations 
for  mutual  insurance  the  tribe  takes  its  origin.  In 
many  cases  one  of  the  first  signs  that  this  new  organi- 
zation has  become  a social  or  political  entity  is  the 
appearance  of  an  obligation  on  its  members  to 
intermarry. 

It  is  well  known  that  in  the  primitive  ages  of  the 
Aryan  races  the  tribesmen  were  not  only  shepherds 
rather  than  warriors  but  also  essentially  nomadic  in 
habit.  It  was  in  the  character  of  owners-in-common 
that  they  held  the  land  on  which  they  pastured 
their  flocks.  Later,  when  they  began  to  settle  in 
defined  localities  to  till  the  soil,  the  ownership  of 
property  ceased  to  be  collective.  As  population 
and  the  area  under  cultivation  increased,  private 
property  appeared  at  first  as  the  right  of  the  family 
and  finally  as  the  right  of  the  individual. 

Even  to-day,  however,  we  see  traces  of  such  primi- 
tive collectivism  in  the  “ Mir  ” of  Russia,  the 
“ Dessa  ” of  Java,  and  the  “ Zadruga  ” of  Bulgaria. 
The  peculiarity  of  the  Moi  is  that  they  exhibit  the 
three  forms  of  ownership,  collective,  family,  and 
individual,  in  conjunction. 

Evidence  of  the  communistic  basis  of  their  pro- 
prietary system  is  plentiful  and  cumulative.  The 
whole  group  takes  part  in  the  acquisition  and  develop- 
ment of  a tract  of  land  sufficient  to  satisfy  all  their 
needs.  The  trophies  of  war,  the  spoils  of  the  chase 
and  the  harvests  are  divided  equally  among  those 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


77 


entitled  to  them.  Inequality  of  distribution  is 
almost  unknown.  The  Chief  reserves  a portion  in 
addition  to  his  own  to  offer  as  a sacrifice  to  the 
Spirits  or  to  dispense  in  hospitality  to  strangers. 

There  is  equally  strong  evidence  of  the  system 
of  family  ownership  of  property.  Every  family  has 
its  private  residence  and  household  implements. 
This  economic  dispensation  accounts  for  differences 
of  wealth  and  station  among  members  of  the  same 
communal  group.  For  example  a family  in  which 
there  are  many  grown-up  girls  will  become  rich  on 
the  proceeds  of  their  skill  in  weaving,  pot-making, 
and  other  spheres  of  activity. 

The  individual  ownership  of  property  seems  to  be 
confined  to  jewellery,  pipes,  weapons,  and  similar 
objects  which  any  man  can  make  for  himself.  Further, 
any  member  of  the  group  is  entitled  to  do  what 
he  likes  with  the  portion  of  food  distributed  to  him. 
In  most  cases  if  he  does  not  consume  it  himself  he 
will  lend  it  to  some  less  thrifty  neighbour  who  finds 
his  store  exhausted.  If  the  day  for  repayment 
comes  round  and  the  liability  is  not  discharged,  the 
borrower,  his  wife  and  children,  become  the  absolute 
property  of  the  lender  whose  sole  obligation  is  to 
support  them.  The  debtor  thus  becomes  a slave, 
or  rather,  to  speak  more  accurately,  a servant  for  life. 
It  is  not  at  all  unusual  in  times  of  great  scarcity  for 
the  Moi  to  sell  both  themselves  and  their  families 
when  faced  with  the  prospect  of  starvation.  These 
facts  are  well  known  to  our  Government,  which  is 


78 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


powerless  to  prevent  such  evils  so  long  as  the 
imperfect  means  of  communication  prevent  the 
easy  transport  of  food  supplies  from  a fertile  region 
to  a famine-stricken  province. 

Trading  in  slaves  is  prohibited,  but  there  is  no 
doubt  that  it  goes  on  in  secret. 

In  principle  the  debtor-slave  can  procure  his  own 
redemption  by  his  own  labour.  But  the  value  of 
that  labour  is  calculated  by  the  master  and  at  so 
ridiculous  a figure  that  in  practice  hardly  any  slave 
earns  his  freedom  before  his  death.  The  annual 
value  of  the  labour  of  a strong  man  is  reckoned  at 
about  five  francs  more  than  the  cost  of  his  support. 
Further,  if  a slave  does  not  satisfy  his  master  he  may 
be  resold  at  a price  which  represents  an  increase  of 
twenty-five  per  cent,  on  the  original  debt. 

'Fhe  system  may  truly  be  described  as  in  every 
sense  an  exploitation  of  human  misery.  At  the 
current  rate  of  calculation  it  may  take  several  genera- 
tions of  sufferers  to  pay  off  the  first  debt. 

In  theory  there  is  another  mode  of  redemption. 
On  his  master’s  death  a slave  can  recover  his  liberty 
by  sacrificing  a buffalo  and  placing  a small  portion 
of  the  flesh  in  the  mouth  of  the  deceased.  The 
mere  idea  of  a debtor-slave  having  the  means  to 
buy  a buffalo  is  one  to  provoke  bitter  mirth  ! 

Any  reform  should  aim  at  an  equitable  calculation 
of  the  value  of  the  services  rendered  and  the  rate  of 
interest  should  be  drastically  revised.  This  rate, 
which  is  extremely  exorbitant,  soon  trebles  and 


A Little  Kha  (Slave  GirO. 


Our  Native  Prisoners. 


[To  face  p.  78. 


The  Village  Musician  serenading  a Young  Couple  about  to  be  married. 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


79 


even  quadruples  the  amount  of  the  original  debt. 
It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  a slave  shares  in 
the  family  life,  is  consulted  in  any  crisis  that  may 
arise,  and,  if  a woman,  may  inherit.  Cruelty  and 
ill-usage  are  rare,  and  even  where  they  exist  there 
is  some  safeguard  in  the  slave’s  right  of  appeal  to 
the  village  Elders. 

A female  slave  is  protected  against  any  abuse  of 
authority  by  her  master.  If  he  violates  her  she  is 
freed  at  once  by  the  act. 

In  Babylon  the  law  was  equally  favourable  to 
slaves  and  even  went  so  far  as  to  permit  them  to 
contract  independently  of  their  masters  under  the 
ingenious  system  of  peculium.  It  was  also  quite 
usual  for  anyone  to  escape  from  an  embarrassing 
financial  position  by  entering  on  a kind  of  voluntary 
servitude  which  could  be  terminated  in  time  by 
payment  of  a sum  for  redemption  out  of  the  earnings 
of  the  service.  Further,  it  was  enacted  by  Ham- 
murabi’s code,  two  thousand  years  before  the  Christian 
era,  that  a creditor,  after  three  years,  must  set  free 
the  wife  or  daughter  of  his  debtor  if  he  had  accepted 
them  as  sureties  for  the  debt. 

The  laws  of  the  Hebrews  likewise  permitted  an 
insolvent  debtor  to  sell  himself  and  his  family  into 
bondage  to  extinguish  a debt.  A peculiar  feature 
in  this  case  was  the  debtor’s  right  to  sell  his  wife  or 
daughters  and  himself  retain  his  liberty. 

The  laws  of  the  Annamites  forbid  this  same 
transaction,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  frequently 


8o 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


takes  place.  Custom  in  these  matters  is  of  far  more 
force  than  the  law,  and  the  actual  nature,  of  the 
contract  is  concealed  under  various  disguises. 

The  Chinese  code  contains  a special  provision 
relating  to  “ The  letting  on  hire  of  wives  or 
daughters.” 

Another  force  working  to  the  same  end  is  the  fact 
that  in  countries  in  which  individualistic  ownership 
of  land  prevails,  and  where  labour  is  scarce  the  owner 
stops  at  nothing  to  increase  the  number  of  hands 
on  his  estate.  This  necessity  is  the  mother  of  all 
manner  of  abuses,  to  which  the  weakest  naturally 
fall  victims. 

The  Sorcerers,  for  example,  impose  the  most 
exorbitant  fines  on  those  who  have  failed  to  carry 
out  the  least  detail  of  the  rites.  A penalty  thus 
inflicted  constitutes  the  delinquent  to  all  intents 
and  purposes  a slave  of  the  offended  Spirit.  He 
has  to  place  himself  at  the  disposal  of  the  Sorcerer, 
the  representative  of  the  deity.  Another  species  of 
slavery  is  created  by  the  capture  of  prisoners  of  war. 
There  are  no  provisions  in  law  or  custom  for  their 
redemption  or  liberation  except  by  way  of  exchange. 
Otherwise  the  servitude  is  deemed  perpetual. 

The  independent  Moi  have  recourse  to  a raid  on 
their  neighbours,  the  Annamites,  when  their  stock 
of  slaves  falls  low.  The  prisoner  of  war  is  considered 
as  belonging  to  an  inferior  order  of  creation  with  no 
status  and  few  rights.  A woman  may  not  marry 
and  neither  male  nor  female  may  inherit ; but  the 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


8i 


law  contemplates  the  case  of  a free  woman  marrying 
a male  prisoner  of  war.  The  father  and  the  male 
children  become  the  slaves  of  the  woman.  Female 
children  are  freed.  If  the  children  are  all  boys  or 
all  girls  they  are  divided  and  one  half  become  the 
slaves  of  the  other. 

In  short,  although  less  cruel  and  inhuman  than 
wholesale  slaughter,  slavery  is  one  of  the  most  blight- 
ing institutions  in  these  barbarous  regions.  The 
Moi  prefer  the  milder  to  the  more  drastic  treatment, 
not  from  any  motives  of  altruism  but  solely  from 
considerations  of  self-interest.  The  death  of  an 
individual  for  religious  disobedience  or  even  the 
commission  of  a crime  profits  no  one,  but  material 
benefits  accrue  both  to  the  private  citizen  and  to  the 
state  from  the  fine  imposed  or  the  services  exacted  as 
punishment.  The  most  superficial  investigation  reveals 
the  essential  utilitarianism  of  the  conception  of  justice 
which  obtains  among  the  Moi. 

No  less  utilitarian  is  their  conception  of  morality. 
They  never  ask  whether  an  act  is  good  or  bad  in 
itself,  for  abstract  standards  of  right  and  wrong  are 
unknown  to  them.  They  merely  ask  whether  the 
act  is  prejudicial  to  private  or  public  well-being.  It 
follows  from  this  that  crimes  against  the  individual 
are  punished  far  less  severely  than  crimes  against  the 
state,  and  further  that  the  most  serious  offences  are 
those  which  touch  material  prosperity  and  enjoy- 
ment. A theft  of  rice  from  the  public  granary  is 
punished  by  enslavement,  for  rice  is  the  staple  food 

6 


82 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


and  an  indispensable  necessity  to  the  whole  group. 
The  same  theft  from  a private  individual  is  regarded 
only  as  a minor  offence  punishable  summarily  by 
fine.  In  this  case  Society  does  not  suffer,  or  at 
least  only  indirectly  and  to  an  imperceptible  degree. 

In  the  same  way  a murderer  receives  no  punishment 
if  his  act  is  one  of  vengeance  for  a similar  crime.  He 
is  exacting  the  price  of  blood,  and  the  blood-feud  is 
recognized  and  approved.  It  is  highly  meritorious 
to  kill  a foreigner  or  a public  enemy,  and  the  slayer 
becomes  ipso  facto  a popular  hero. 

This  conception  of  morality  is  the  production  of 
tradition  and  has  been  influenced  in  various  ways  by 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Sorcerers  over  a number  of 
offences,  especially  those  relating  to  sex  and  ritual. 

It  has  long  been  popularly  supposed  that  races  in 
a rudimentary  stage  of  civilization  enjoy  absolute 
immunity  from  regulation  in  the  matter  of  sexual 
relations.  Nothing  could  be  further  from  the  truth, 
the  evidence  all  pointing  the  other  way.  Indeed, 
paradoxical  as  it  may  seem,  it  is  none  the  less  true 
that  sexual  relations  of  primitive  peoples  are  more 
restricted,  more  bound  round  by  various  interdictions, 
than  those  of  peoples  which  have  reached  a higher 
stage  of  development.  It  is  plain  that  we  have  often 
confused  complete  sexual  licence  with  the  exercise 
of  perfectly  limited  and  defined  rights  which  are  only 
permitted  during  certain  public  festivals.  It  is  only 
necessary  in  this  connection  to  remind  ourselves  of 
the  Saturnalia  in  Rome 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


83 

The  same  error  appears  in  the  popular  attitude 
towards  polyandry,  which  is  frequently  attributed 
to  the  moral  abandonment  of  the  women.  In  reality 
the  system  is  no  less  organized  and  regulated  than 
that  of  polyga«y.  Further,  all  educated  travellers 
who  have  lived  long  enough  among  primitive  races 
to  attain  some  degree  of  intimacy  have  expressed 
surprise  at  their  reticence  in  speaking  of  these  matters 
They  display  the  most  marked  repugnance  to  give 
any  information  about  their  women,  and  if  pressed 
to  answer  questions,  take  refuge  in  evasion  or  refuse 
to  continue  the  conversation. 

It  is  only  after  years  spent  amongst  them,  and, 
after  winning  their  confidence,  mainly  by  medical 
services,  that  a European  can  penetrate  at  all  into  that 
region  of  mystery  from  which  he  is  jealously  excluded 

Some  of  the  following  observations  are  the  result 
of  personal  investigation.  Others  are  made  on  the 
authority  of  several  of  my  countrymen  with  the 
experience  of  a long  residence  in  the  country  behind 
them,  while  others  again  are  founded  on  information 
supplied  by  the  natives  which  I have  myself  verified. 
Some  of  my  remarks  apply  only  to  a tribe  or  a 
particular  region,  but  in  many  cases  they  hold 
good  of  the  whole  group,  and  even  of  a wider  circle, 
for  it  must  never  be  forgotten  that  resemblances 
are  encountered  everywhere  between  the  customs  of 
these  folk  and  those,  not  only  of  other  peoples  of  the 
Far  East,  but  also  of  the  semi-savages  of  Africa  and 
Polynesia. 


6* 


84  [SOCIAL  LIFE 

I have  had  occasion  to  speak  before  of  the  custom, 
practised  by  several  of  the  Moi  tribes,  of  killing  the 
firstborn  if  no  one  comes  forward  to  claim  the 
paternity.  Thanks  to  this  convenient  institution,' 
it  is  quite  usual  for  a young  girl  to  become  a mother 
solely  to  prove  her  fertility. 

We  find  this  same  custom  among  the  Bohindu  of 
the  Belgian  Congo,  where  the  girls  indulge  in  pro- 
miscuous prostitution  until  conception  takes  place. 
This  event  guarantees  them  a husband,  for  sterility 
is  a ground  for  divorce,  and  the  man  looks  upon  fertility 
as  the  highest  virtue  in  a woman.  Thus,  calculated 
prostitution,  if  I may  use  the  phrase,  is  not  regarded 
with  disfavour  by  some  primitive  peoples.  Where 
the  motive  is  other  than  the  desire  for  maternity 
it  is  regarded  merely  as  mental  aberration  or  weakness 
of  mind.  If  a woman  gives  herself  without  love, 
she  is  not  a criminal  but  an  idiot.  The  same  attitude 
is  displayed  by  the  Abahua  of  the  Belgian  Congo. 
Each  time  that  we  made  the  acquaintance  of  a Moi 
tribe  the  Chief  was  careful  to  demonstrate  his 
hospitality  by  the  offer  of  some  female  slaves  in- 
structed to  put  themselves  at  our  disposal.  It  seems 
that  this  act  of  courtesy  is  invariably  extended  to 
strangers  of  their  own  race,  and  consequently  their 
astonishment  was  all  the  greater  when  we  declined 
the  honour. 

This  magnanimous  custom  is  also  found  among 
several  of  the  races  which  inhabit  equatorial  Africa, 
notably  the  Medge  and  the  Mangbetu. 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


85 


Incestuous  relationships  are  by  no  means  uncommon 
among  the  Moi.  I once  spent  several  months  in  the 
village  of  Lebouy,  where  the  chief  was  the  father  of 
his  daughter’s  children.  Nor  was  any  exception 
taken  to  his  action,  which  was  regarded  merely  as  the 
exercise  of  a right  which  immemorial  precedent  had 
sanctioned. 

These  incestuous  connections  are  by  no  means 
confined  to  the  eastern  archipelago,  but  are  con- 
stantly met  with  in  Africa  also.  I need  only  mention 
the  Avura-Gura  of  the  Congo  as  an  example.  It  is 
a mere  matter  of  history  that  incest  was  practised 
and  recognized  by  the  royal  family  in  ancient  Egypt. 
The  most  usual  instance  was  a union  between  sisters 
and  brothers.  The  object,  of  course,  was  to  ensure 
that  the  royal  blood  should  be  transmitted  from 
generation  to  generation  without  any  admixture 
of  alien  strains,  and  thus  preserve  its  identity  with 
its  true  and  first  origin — the  union  of  a god  and  some 
creature,  such  as  the  hawk  or  gryphon.  The  example 
of  the  princes  soon  found  imitators  among  their 
subjects,  and  after  being  confined  to  the  nobility 
and  ruling  classes,  it  spread  among  all  orders  of 
society.  We  possess  an  accumulation  of  proof, 
which  places  the  matter  beyond  doubt,  in  the  docu- 
ments and  inscriptions  which  archaeological  research 
has  brought  to  light. 

By  way  of  contrast,  a custom  obtains  among  certain 
groups  in  Indo-China  (though  almost  unknown  else- 
where), especially  the  Man  Coc,  and  Man  Pa  Tong, 


86 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


which  formally  prohibits  intercourse  between  a woman 
and  her  father-in-law  or  uncles,  and  likewise  between 
a man  and  his  mother-in-law,  his  aunts,  or  his  sisters- 
in-law.  I shall  have  occasion  further  on  to  investi- 
gate this  peculiar  veto  which  is  enforced  by  certain 
African  tribes  also. 

The  Levirate  (from  “ Levir,”  a brother-in-law, 
in  Sanscrit  dSvar)  is  also  found  operating  as  a 
stringent  injunction. 

This,  as  everyone  knows,  takes  its  name  from  that 
law  of  Moses  which  commanded  a brother-in-law  to 
marry  his  deceased  brother’s  widow  (in  cases  where 
there  had  been  no  issue)  in  order  to  provide  an  heir 
to  the  family  and  to  perpetuate  his  name.  It  was  a 
species  of  “ adoption  beyond  the  tomb.” 

In  the  same  way,  there  are  laws  among  certain  of 
the  Moi  tribes,  such  as  the  Rade,  by  which  a widow 
is  compelled  to  remarry  with  some  member  of  her 
husband’s  family.  Various  reasons  are  assigned  for 
this  injunction,  but  primarily  it  is  dictated  by  a desire 
to  secure  the  inheritance  to  the  family  of  the  deceased. 

I was  told  of  several  cases  of  bestiality  which 
seemed  to  me,  even  if  proved,  to  present  no  features 
worthy  of  comment.  Sexual  perversions  of  this 
character  are  not  confined  to  any  one  country  nor 
any  one  period,  and  it  is  sufficient  to  remark  that 
nearly  every  race  has  legends  of  gods  changing  them- 
selves into  animals  with  the  aim  of  uniting  themselves 
with  mortals.  These  fables  are  not  mere  fictions  of 
a poet’s  brain  but  reminiscences  of  a distant  period 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


87 

when  Egyptians  and  Greeks  worshipped  animal-gods 
whom  superstition  had  endowed  with  mortal  offspring. 

One  fact  which  I was  able  to  prove  to  my  own 
satisfaction  was  the  dietary  regulations  to  which 
pregnant  women  are  subjected.  Among  the  pro- 
hibited foods  at  that  period  figures  the  flesh  of  all 
male  animals  which  have  not  been  castrated.  Here, 
without  doubt,  is  an  analogy  with  the  law  of  the 
Man-Coc  that  no  sexual  intercourse  may  take  place 
after  the  third  month  of  pregnancy.  In  particular, 
the  mother-to-be  must  abstain  from  fat  and  green 
vegetables.  She  may  undertake  no  kind  of  work, 
not  even  the  most  trivial  of  household  duties. 

Like  other  races  with  a low  degree  of  civilization, 
the  Moi  attribute  to  physical  excess  of  all  kinds  a 
loss  of  force  which  puts  an  individual  at  a disadvantage 
in  his  contest  with  the  powers  of  the  earth  or  the 
air.  On  this  belief  are  based  the  rules  which  prescribe 
the  preparations  of  one  who  is  about  to  face  some 
judicial  test  or  ordeal.  He  must  pass  the  previous 
night  in  a state  of  complete  abstinence,  so  that  his 
moral  and  physical  condition  shall  be  perfect  for  the 
trial  he  is  to  undergo.  The  golden  rule  is  summed 
up  in  a motto  of  the  Adio  of  Central  Africa : “No 
man  may  face  the  ordeal  if  not  pure  in  body  and 
mind,  sinless  and  unstained.”  It  seems  doubtful 
whether  the  origin  of  this  belief  is  religious  or  ex- 
perimental. We  know  that  it  flourished  among  the 
Egyptians  from  an  early  period. 

It  is  impossible  to  obtain  even  the  most  superficial 


88 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


understanding  of  many  Moi  laws  and  institutions 
without  investigating  the  peculiar  conceptions  of 
morality  on  which  they  are  based. 

A Moi  woman  appears  before  the  Council  of  the 
Ancients  with  a charge  that  some  man  has  touched 
her  without  her  consent.  A fine  is  inflicted  on  the 
accused  varying  in  amount  with  the  importance  of 
the  part  of  the  body  which  he  touched.  If  there 
has  been  complete  seduction  and  the  seducer  refuses 
to  marry  the  complainant  the  fine  is  doubled. 

Perhaps  it  is  a husband  who  complains  that  his 
wife  has  committed  adultery  on  three  different 
occasions  with  three  different  men.  He  himself 
will  be  punished,  and  the  sentence  will  be  accom- 
panied by  some  withering  reflections  on  his  incom- 
petence and  complacence,  hardly  flattering  to  his 
vanity.  I ought  to  add  that  this  curious  judicial 
perversion  is  met  with  only  on  the  shores  of  the 
great  lakes,  where  morals  are  less  rigid  than  in  other 
parts  of  Indo-China. 

I was  told  that  among  a few  groups  adultery  is 
not  considered  criminal  if  the  woman’s  accomplice 
is  a relation  of  her  husband.  The  Batua  of  the  Congo 
also  seem  to  regard  this  as  an  extenuating  circumstance, 
but  their  neighbours,  the  Medge  and  the  Mangbetu, 
take  a precisely  opposite  view  and  rigorously  forbid 
brothers  to  seduce  each  other’s  wives.  All  the  Moi 
consider  it  a gross  aggravation  of  the  offence  if 
the  seducer  takes  advantage  of  the  husband’s  absence 
in  war  or  the  hunting-field. 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


89 

I have  already  recorded  that  I was  frequently 
prevailed  on  by  the  Moi  to  act  as  arbitrator  in  their 
disputes.  I have  the  gravest  misgivings  that  my 
judgments  did  more  credit  to  my  kindly  intentions 
than  to  my  legal  knowledge. 

I always  made  a point  of  using  all  my  resources 
to  impress  the  litigants  with  a due  sense  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  occasion  and  the  dignity  of  the 
tribunal. 

A scarlet  cloth  is  thrown  over  my  folding  table. 
Next  the  huge  blue-cotton  umbrella,  whose  humble 
function  is  to  protect  our  theodolite  from  the  sun’s 
rays,  is  commandeered  to  shelter  the  miserable  packing- 
case  which  serves  me  for  my  curule  chair.  I don  a 
wide-brimmed  Boer  hat  and  my  revolver-case  is 
reverentially  attached  to  my  belt  by  my  boy,  who  is 
crier,  clerk,  and  usher  all  in  one. 

To-day  the  case  in  the  list  is  : 

“ Annamite  v.  Moi.” 

It  would  be  altogether  a miracle  if  the  plaintiff 
did  not  herald  his  appearance  with  a present  of  some 
kind,  in  this  case  chickens,  eggs  and  bananas.  He 
is  convulsed  with  astonishment  when,  incorruptible, 
I reject  his  bribes.  His  ordinary  judges,  the  Man- 
darins, have  other  and  better  manners.  They  have 
not  prepared  him  for  such  a rebuff. 

The  Moi,  on  the  other  hand,  has  brought  nothing 
with  which  to  seek  my  favour.  Perhaps  he  is  too 


90  SOCIAL  LIFE 

poor  or  perhaps  he  has  already  sufficient  faith  in  my 
impartiality. 

The  case  opens  with  a recital  of  the  facts  in  issue. 

The  Annamite  tells  his  story  first. 

He  bows  three  times,  kisses  the  ground  and  remains 
on  his  knees  throughout  the  hearing  in  accordance 
with  the  procedure  prescribed  for  the  plaintiff. 

“ I am  a dealer  in  pigs,”  he  tells  me,  “ and  I was 
bringing  four  of  them  to  market  in  the  hills. 

“ While  passing  through  this  Moi  village  the  heat 
and  my  weariness  compelled  me  to  break  my  journey; 
so  I sought  out  the  Pholy  with  a request  for  hospitality 
and  the  shelter  of  my  pigs  in  his  sty.  You  may 
imagine  my  amazement  when,  on  resuming  my 
journey,  I discovered  that  my  fine  animals,  all  more 
than  two  years  old,  were  nowhere  to  be  seen  and 
had  been  replaced  by  four  miserable  creatures  which 
are  hardly  six  weeks  old. 

“ I demand  therefore  that  the  great  soldier  Man- 
darin shall  restore  to  me  what  is  my  own.” 

Questioned  in  turn,  the  defendant  swears  by  the 
Spirit  of  the  Hearth  that  the  plaintiff’s  story  is  a 
mere  tissue  of  lies.  His  version  is  that  the  Annamite 
took  advantage  of  the  previous  night  to  steal  some  of 
his  young  pigs  which  had  got  loose  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, and  that,  failing  to  procure  sufficient  food  for 
them,  he  had  attempted  to  exchange  them  legally 
for  animals  of  greater  value. 

Under  these  perplexing  circumstances  I find 
Solomon’s  mantle  weighing  heavily  upon  me. 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


91 

Suddenly  an  inspiration  comes  to  me,  doubtless 
a gift  from  the  Spirit  of  the  Hearth. 

If  the  animals  have  really  been  stolen  from  the 
village  they  will  surely  be  able  to  return  to  their 
homes  by  themselves.  They  have  fasted  since  the 
morning  and  it  will  be  strange  if  their  empty  stomachs 
cannot  spur  their  memories  to  something  more  than 
normal  activity. 

Accordingly  with  the  becoming  solemnity  of  a 
just  and  wise  judge,  I order  the  plaintiff  to  drive 
the  four  animals  in  dispute  before  him  through  every 
street  in  the  village.  The  procession  forms  up,  the 
Tribunal,  strangely  nervous  as  to  the  result  of  its 
experiment,  bringing  up  the  rear. 

The  Annamite  assumes  a swaggering  air  and 
brandishes  his  whip  like  a man  sure  of  his  facts,  but  a 
significant  contraction  of  his  eyebrows  gives  me  the 
impression  that  he  is  not  wholeheartedly  in  agree- 
ment with  my  plan.  Sure  enough,  before  the  troupe 
has  progressed  more  than  a few  hundred  yards,  one 
of  the  pigs  hesitates,  sniffs  suspiciously,  and  wags 
its  tail,  then,  uttering  a vigorous  grunt,  dashes  into 
a stable  with  a certitude  that  leaves  no  doubt  of  its 
familiarity. 

A few  steps  farther  on  a second  animal  repeats 
the  comedy,  with  the  same  features  of  hesitation, 
recognition,  and  precipitation.  The  Annamite 
thrashes  the  air  with  his  whip  and  swears  by  Buddha 
that  he  is  the  victim  of  a pernicious  conspiracy.  All 
in  vain.  Soon  all  the  pigs  have  recovered  their 


92  SOCIAL  LIFE 

native  haunts  and  there  is  nothing  left  for  him  to 
drive.  The  Ministry  of  Justice  has  an  easy  task  in 
constructing  a case  against  him  and  the  impudent 
rascal  is  unanimously  convicted  of  theft,  aggravated 
by  abuse  of  hospitality.  He  thinks  himself  lucky  to 
escape  with  the  loss  of  one  of  his  gold  rings  as  a fine 
and  compensation  to  the  Head  of  the  village. 

I wonder  if  I was  right  ? 

Happily  for  my  reputation  as  judge,  this  cause 
celebre  was  positively  my  last  appearance  in  the  role. 
A few  days  afterwards  I was  a spectator,  by  official 
invitation  and  on  the  principle  of  reciprocity,  at  one 
of  the  native  trials. 

No  luxurious  court-house,  no  gilt  and  trappings 
here  ! The  Pholy,  following  the  example  of  St. 
Louis,  administers  justice  beneath  a sacred  fig-tree — 
the  most  majestic  object  conceivable — beneath  whose 
all-embracing  branches  a concourse,  vaster  than  any 
that  throngs  our  courts  at  a sensational  trial,  could 
find  shelter.  The  chiefs  surround  their  President 
and  form  a truly  imposing  tribunal.  The  Sorcerer, 
too,  is  there,  and  he  will  play  the  chief  part  to-day. 

Some  cattle  have  been  stolen  a week  or  so  ago  and 
every  man  suspects  his  neighbour  of  the  crime.  The 
real  malefactor,  however,  is  known  only  to  the  Spirits, 
and  they  alone  can  expose  him.  As  their  cares  and 
interests  are  too  multifarious  to  permit  them  to 
appear  in  person  on  the  earth,  our  Sorcerer  declares 
that  they  have  assigned  to  him  their  powers  and 
functions  for  the  occasion.  To-day  he  will  be  their 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


93 


mouthpiece.  He  takes  an  egg  lightly  between  his 
thumb  and  first  finger,  pressing  the  ends  with  two 
other  fingers.  At  his  request  a young  assistant  pro- 
claims in  a wailing  voice  the  names  of  all  the  neigh- 
bouring lands.  He  cannot  believe,  he  tells  us,  that 
a fellow  countryman  should  be  guilty  of  so  dastardly 
an  outrage.  But  the  recital  is  over  and  the  egg  has 
not  trembled.  There  is  nothing  left  but  to  call  out 
the  name  of  his  own  village.  Alas  ! No  sooner 
are  the  words  uttered  than  an  ominous  crack  is 
heard  and  a sticky  yellow  fluid  issues  from  the  shell, 
now  broken  in  two.  Recourse  must  now  be  had  to 
the  evidence.  The  circle  of  inquiry  is  narrowed  and 
it  only  remains  to  discover  the  guilty  individual. 

The  first  experiment  has  proved  far  too  successful 
to  be  discarded  in  favour  of  any  innovation.  An 
egg,  balanced  in  the  same  way  as  before,  will  be  the 
sole  cost  of  the  continued  investigation.  The  same 
unsophisticated  youth  now  proceeds  to  recite  the 
names  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  village.  In  most 
cases  he  designates  them  by  their  nicknames.  The 
“ Squirrel,”  the  “ Pagoda  Cock  ” and  the  “ Marabout  ” 
are  at  present  white  as  snow.  They  all  appear  to 
heave  an  immense  sigh  of  relief  as  their  names  are 
called  out  without  any  sign  of  expostulation  from 
the  egg.  It  is  plain  that  their  belief  in  the  justice 
of  the  Spirits  is  far  from  profound.  They  lose  no 
time  in  vanishing  from  the  scene. 

Suddenly,  just  as  the  youthful  voice  proclaims 
“ The  Scorpion,”  the  egg  unmistakably  collapses. 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


94 

The  malefactor  thus  indicated  is  a broken-down  old 
man,  an  object  more  of  sympathy  than  of  suspicion. 
His  rickety  frame  is  supported  with  considerable 
difficulty  by  his  legs,  which  are  swollen  to  an  un- 
natural degree  by  gout.  But  the  eye  of  the  Spirits 
is  piercing,  their  justice  unfailing.  No  escape  for 
the  guilty  is  possible.  However,  as  the  accused 
protests  his  innocence  with  all  the  emphasis  at  his 
command,  the  Pholy  condescends  to  allow  him  to 
prove  it  by  submitting  to  the  ordeal  prescribed  by  the 
Gods.  Two  alternatives  are  offered  to  him,  the  ordeal 
by  water  and  that  by  boiling  resin,  in  which  an  inno- 
cent man  may  plunge  his  hand  and  withdraw  it 
unharmed. 

“ The  Scorpion  ” is  not  slow  to  choose  the  former. 
The  divine  instrument  of  trial  is  near  at  hand  in 
the  shape  of  a river  which  flows  within  a short  distance 
of  the  sacred  judgment  tree.  While  the  preparations 
for  the  ordeal  are  going  forward,  the  accused  asks 
for  permission  to  make  a preliminary  statement.  If 
he  can  associate  an  accomplice  with  him  in  the 
crime  it  will  doubtless  mitigate  his  punishment. 
Accordingly  he  formally  names  another  viUager  as 
his  partner  in  transgression.  The  alleged  partner’s 
vigorous  denials  are  followed  by  immediate  arrest. 
The  question  now  is  as  to  the  respective  degrees  of 
guilt,  a point  which  the  river  will  ultimately  settle. 
Two  stakes  are  driven  into  the  middle  of  the  stream 
at  a point  where  the  depth  is  about  ten  feet.  The 
unfortunate  victims  are  conveyed  by  canoe  to  the 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


95 


spot  and  left  clinging  desperately  to  the  stakes  while 
trying  to  keep  their  heads  under  water  as  long  as 
possible.  The  test  is  quite  simple.  The  one  who 
loses  his  breath  and  comes  up  to  the  surface  first 
stands  convicted  of  being  the  principal  in  the  theft, 
while  his  larger-lunged  rival  is  cleared  of  everything 
save  the  charge  of  complicity. 

In  a few  seconds  the  performance  is  over,  for  the 
unhappy  “ Scorpion,”  already  paralysed  by  fear  of 
the  immersion,  cannot  hold  his  breath  at  all,  and 
bobs  up  to  the  surface  immediately,  half  asphyxiated. 
The  Sorcerer,  delighted  at  the  result  of  his  experi- 
ment, expresses  his  appreciation  in  a series  of  approving 
gestures. 

The  principle  of  the  ordeal  rests  on  the  belief, 
prevalent  among  the  great  majority  of  half-civilized 
races,  that  the  tutelary  deity  of  any  individual  with- 
draws his  protection  and  assistance  if  his  “ ward  ” 
has  violated  any  of  the  fundamental  principles  of 
morality,  or  neglected  the  rites  and  ceremonies  en- 
joined by  his  religion. 

This  notion  of  loss  of  protection  of  a higher  power 
may  possibly  be  associated  with  the  vague  idea  of 
a conscience.  It  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  curious 
conceptions  which  research  into  the  science  of 
divination  has  brought  to  our  notice.  The  sub- 
mission of  a suspected  criminal  to  trial  by  ordeal  is 
an  invitation  to  the  Spirits  to  give  a manifestation 
of  their  desires. 

There^  are  many  forms  of  this  species  of  divine 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


96 

interrogatory,  varying  in  number  and  character  in 
different  parts  of  the  world.  Fifty  varieties  at  least 
are  met  with  in  Africa.  It  is  not  to  be  believed, 
however,  that  every  ordeal  is  dangerous  or  even 
necessarily  harmful.  Many  forms  are  known  far 
less  cruel  than  those  which  arrest  the  imagination 
of  the  traveller  by  virtue  of  their  more  inhuman 
incidents,  such  as  the  ordeal  by  boiling  water,  molten 
lead,  or  poison  dropped  into  the  eyes. 

Thus,  among  the  Moi,  a favourite  ordeal  is  to 
compel  the  accused  to  drink  an  excessive  quantity 
of  water  or  alcohol  resulting  in  temporary  discomfort 
without  danger  or  permanent  injury. 

In  Africa  cases  are  known  where  an  ordeal  is  carried 
through  without  the  suspected  criminal  knowing  of 
it.  For  example,  it  has  been  considered  sufficient 
to  observe  the  direction  in  which  the  smoke  of  a 
chimney  is  blown,  or  to  set  a trap  in  some  place 
known  to  be  frequented  by  rats.  The  innocence 
or  guilt  of  the  accused  will  be  determined  according 
to  whether  a rat  is  caught  or  not. 

To  judge  by  the  enormous  quantity  of  spirits 
consumed  by  the  Moi  I should  have  said  that  this 
form  of  ordeal  was  the  most  frequent  incident  of 
daily  life.  My  flask  of  ammonia  was  in  perpetual 
requisition  after  I had,  in  an  evil  moment,  revealed 
to  them  the  peculiar  property  of  ammonia  gas,  which 
dissipates  the  fumes  of  alcohol. 

Perhaps  I am  doing  my  friends  an  injustice. 
Perhaps  there  was  a more  edifying  explanation  of  the 


SOCIAL  LIFE 


97 


run  on  my  flask.  May  it  not  be  that  it  furnished  a 
magic  potion  to  some  lover  of  the  “ bottle  ” with 
which  to  renew  his  stock  of  dreams  ? 

A psychologist  friend  of  mine  once  said  that 
man  cannot  do  without  his  “ dream-world.” 

The  Moi  is  no  exception.  He,  too,  needs  an 
artificial  paradise  and  finds  it  in  the  bottle.  He 
drinks  to  see  life  rosy 


7 


CHAPTER  V 


RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS  AND  RITES 


Similarity  between  the  philosophical  conceptions  of  uncivilized  races — 
Most  of  the  ritual  derived  from  magic — Dualism — Private  and  public 
talismans — The  Pi — The  Legend  of  the  Dog-King — Totemism — 
Sorcery — Rebel  Moi. 


STUDY  of  the  general  history  of  mankind 


reveals  many  striking  resemblances  between 
the  crude  ideas  which  pass  for  philosophical  con- 
ceptions among  nations  in  their  infancy. 

Whether  the  Moi  is  considered  as  an  undeveloped 
or  a degenerate  being  (and  the  consideration  will 
be  determined  by  the  school  of  thought  to  which 
the  inquirer  adheres)  it  is  beyond  dispute  that  he 
must  be  classed  among  the  half-civilized  portion  of 
mankind,  if  only  because  his  ideas  of  the  supernatural 
are  those  which  the  brain  of  the  savage  has  evolved 
at  all  times  and  in  all  places.  Unlike  the  civilized 
races,  he  has  never  been  able  to  distinguish  the 
natural  from  the  supernatural.  He  still  believes 
that  the  world  is  controlled  by  invisible  forces  set 
in  motion  by  Spirits  constituted  like  himself,  sus- 
ceptible to  emotions  and  passions  like  his  own,  and 


RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS  AND  RITES  99 

ready  to  shape  their  actions  at  the  dictates  of  humour 
or  caprice. 

This  belief  is  the  foundation  of  the  multifarious 
rites  which  accompany  the  most  trivial  daily  act  of 
the  group  which  we  are  now  studying. 

Since  the  invisible  Beings  who  thus  direct  and 
sway  the  fortunes  of  men  are  susceptible  of  love, 
pity,  and  even,  it  seems,  of  fear,  it  is  both  possible 
and  advisable  to  appeal  to  these  emotions  to  secure 
their  assistance,  or,  at  least,  their  neutrality. 

It  win  readily  be  accepted  that  experience  of 
life  does  little  or  nothing  to  shake  this  belief  in  the 
perpetual  intervention  of  the  supernatural,  for 
naturally  it  is  seldom  that  the  desired  event  does 
not  follow,  sooner  or  later,  the  particular  ceremony 
in  which  that  desire  finds  expression. 

For  example,  a great  sacrifice  is  celebrated  to 
secure  a cessation  of  drought.  Even  if  there  is  no 
rain  for  several  weeks  afterwards,  it  will  still  be 
regarded  as  an  answer  to  supplication. 

The  Moi  is  still  in  utter  ignorance  of  the  connec- 
tion between  cause  and  effect,  largely  because  he  has 
only  the  most  elementary  notions  of  time  and  space. 

It  is  an  almost  universal  rule  that  from  the  earliest 
times  religion  grew  out  of  a belief  in  magic.  Indeed 
it  is  worthy  of  remark  at  this  point  that  most  of  the 
customs  and  traditions  found  among  civilized  races 
are  in  essence  forms  of  ancient  magical  rites  which 
have  been  adapted  to  changing  conditions. 

The  most  recent  investigations  by  the  most 

7* 


100  RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS  AND  RITES 


eminent  ethnologists  confirm  the  view  that  a great 
number  of  ritualistic  ceremonies  are  founded  on  the 
principles  of  imitative  or  sympathetic  magic.  This 
fact  must  be  kept  in  mind. 

Imitative  magic  is  based  on  a belief  which  obtains 
general  currency  that  the  effect  resembles  the  cause 
which  produces  it.  The  rudimentary  intelligence 
of  the  savage  infers  from  this  that  it  is  possible  to 
bring  about  the  commission  of  some  act  merely  by 
imitating  it. 

Suppose  a Moi  desires  success  in  the  chase.  Before 
starting  on  his  expedition  he  will  prick  himself  with 
one  of  his  arrows,  or  else  he  will  go  through  a series 
of  contortions  resembling  the  struggles  of  an  animal 
caught  in  his  net.  He  never  doubts  for  a moment 
that  by  imitating  his  action,  his  prey  will  become 
an  easy  victim  to  his  toils. 

“ Sympathetic  ” magic  is  based  on  another  equally 
prevalent  belief  that  objects  which  have  once  been 
in  contact  will  continue  to  influence  each  other  after 
the  contact  has  ceased  and  that  such  continuance  of  in- 
fluence remains  unaffected  either  by  time  or  distance. 

It  follows  as  a logical  conclusion  from  this  belief 
that  all  that  is  necessary  to  obtain  or  maintain 
influence  over  any  person  or  object  is  to  get  possession 
of  some  part  of  that  person  or  object.  Accordingly 
the  Sorcerer’s  first  task  is  to  secure  some  portion  of 
his  intended  victim,  a few  hairs,  perhaps,  or  some 
blood,  or  a piece  of  nail.  By  tormenting  the  image 
he  will  inflict  the  same  sufferings  on  the  original. 


From  “ Les  Tribes  Mo/"] 


[3y  Henri  Maitre, 


A Hut  of  Propitiation  containing  Offerings  to  the  Gods. 


rrom  ••  i^es  i noes  Mo/  j Henri  Maitre. 

Tombs  fenced  with  Bamboo  and  decorated  with  Elephants*  Tusks. 

[To  face  p.  loo. 


Woven  Bamboo  Baskets  used  to  carry  Offerings  to  the  Priests. 


RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS  AND  RITES  loi 


In  the  same  way  a rejected  lover  will  dress  a burnt- 
clay  figure  in  a fragment  of  the  robe  of  his  mistress 
and  by  supplications  addressed  to  her  representative 
seek  to  turn  her  hard  heart  towards  himself. 

Thanks  to  the  new  light  thrown  on  these  funda- 
mental principles  by  the  untiring  efforts  of  Frazer, 
van  Gennep  and  other  eminent  ethnologists,  analysis 
of  the  better  known  beliefs  of  the  Moi  has  become 
both  practicable  and  intelligible.  We  can  at  any 
rate  distinguish  their  salient  characteristics. 

As  the  Spirits  are  susceptible  to  human  passions 
their  natural  inclination  is  to  be  malevolent  towards 
man,  for  passions  excite  to  ill-will  and  ill-doing 
rather  than  to  benevolence.  To  counteract  this 
baneful  tendency  it  is  highly  desirable  to  incite  the 
supernatural  powers  to  turn  their  anger  upon  one 
another,  and  this  is  the  more  easy  of  accomplishment 
because  they  are  numerous,  jealous,  and  have  each 
their  particular  domain. 

To  this  origin  must  we  assign  the  idea  of  provoking 
a supernatural  conflict — dualism — which  inspires 

the  accomplishment  of  certain  rites. 

Further,  it  is  impossible  to  secure  either  the  assis- 
tance or  even  the  neutrality  of  the  superior  powers 
without  a talisman.  The  Sorcerer  supplies  these 
indispensable  instruments,  of  which  he  enjoys  the 
monopoly.  Their  nature  and  appearance  vary  with 
the  object  which  their  wearer  has  in  view.  If  a 
native  fears  the  attack  of  some  particular  animal 
his  talisman  will  be  some  part  of  the  object  of  his 


102  RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS  AND  RITES 


fears.  The  teeth  of  wild  animals,  the  claws  of  tigers, 
the  tongues  of  serpents,  figure  frequently  among 
the  talismans  of  those  who  fear  an  encounter  with 
these  formidable  enemies.  As  a rule  they  are  enclosed 
in  a small  wallet  and  suspended  round  the  neck. 

In  a sense  this  is  as  natural  an  instinct  as  that 
which  prompts  savages  of  all  races  to  make  a pro- 
tective amulet  of  the  object  of  their  fears,  for,  by 
an  analogous  association  of  ideas,  they  have  frequently 
found  the  remedy  in  the  apprehended  evil  itself. 
Anyone  who  has  lived  in  the  bush  knows  that 
immunity  from  the  ill  effects  of  a scorpion’s  bite 
can  be  obtained  by  injecting  under  the  skin  a paste 
made  from  the  tails  of  those  venomous  creatures. 

Some  of  these  talismans  are  valueless  to  all  save 
their  original  owner,  and  sometimes  even  to  him 
only  so  long  as  he  remains  attached  to  his  tribe  and 
village.  They  are,  so  to  speak,  personal  and  not 
transferable. 

On  the  other  hand  there  are  what  I may  call 
“ collective  ” talismans  endowed  with  powers  to 
protect  a family,  a community,  or  even  a whole 
tribe.  They  are  displayed  in  some  prominent 
position,  hung  on  the  doorpost,  a sacred  tree,  the 
mast  of  a canoe,  or  the  palisade  of  a village. 

Others  are  endowed  with  medicinal  properties 
and  are  alleged  to  cure  fevers  and  dysentery.  Our 
portable  chemist’s  shop  was  regarded  as  a very  sacred 
grove  of  the  Spirits  of  Healing.  These  august  deities 
consented  to  appear  in  the  form  of  a white  powder 


RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS  AND  RITES  103 

(quinine)  or  of  fire-water  (tincture  of  iodine)  to  allay 
human  ills.  A bottle  of  chlorodyne  which  I used 
frequently  in  the  many  cases  of  dysentery  and  cholera 
was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  a deity. 

I must  confess  also  that  there  were  many  occasions 
on  which  I took  advantage  of  their  credulity  in  these 
matters.  There  were  times  when  my  request  for 
food  and  lodging  for  our  party  met  with  hesitation 
and  even  point-blank  refusal.  In  such  circumstances 
a simple  threat  to  grind  them  all  to  powder  produced 
a prompt  compliance  with  our  wishes. 

The  Moi  apply  the  generic  term  of  “ Pi  ” to  all 
the  occult  powers  whose  intervention  in  human 
affairs  is  a matter  of  daily  terror.  The  word  “ Pi  ” 
roughly  denotes  the  idea  of  supernatural  action. 
It  corresponds  to  the  “ Orenda  ” of  the  Iroquois 
and  the  “ Mana  ” of  the  savage  tribes  of  Polynesia. 

The  Spirits  who  claim  sway  over  the  region  of  the 
forest-clad  mountains  are  both  numerous  and  quarrel- 
some. Those  whose  intentions  towards  men  are 
known  to  be  beneficent  are  neglected  while  worship 
and  sacrifice  are  concentrated  on  the  propitiation 
of  the  malevolent  ones. 

The  “ Chicken-Devil  ” is  an  object  of  the  greatest 
terror  to  women.  Legend  relates  that  once  upon 
a time  he  was  imprisoned  within  the  body  of  an 
ogress  by  whose  murder  he  was  restored  to  liberty. 

The  malevolent  disposition  of  this  Spirit  is  dis- 
played by  his  habit  of  poisoning  the  breath  of  all 
the  women  who  cross  his  path.  A woman  thus 


104  RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS  AND  RITES 

contaminated  poisons  every  particle  of  food  with 
which  she  comes  in  contact. 

No  less  dangerous  are  the  Spirits  which  have  been 
liberated  from  bondage  by  the  violent  death  or 
suicide  of  their  masters.  Woe  betide  the  traveller 
who  encounters  them  on  his  journey.  If  his  escort 
be  not  large  and  his  weapons  of  the  latest  pattern 
he  will  go  to  swell  the  already  lengthy  list  of  victims 
of  the  powers  of  evil. 

Farther  on  lurks  a fresh  horror. 

The  road  is  long,  the  sun  overpowering,  the  earth 
a burning  carpet.  Suddenly  a tree  offers  welcome 
rest  and  shelter  to  the  weary  traveller.  He  loses 
no  time  in  seeking  its  grateful  shade  and,  selecting 
a suitable  branch  for  a fly-swish,  prepares  to  cut  it 
with  his  knife. 

Heaven  help  him  if  he  carries  out  his  intention. 
The  tree  is  haunted  by  the  spirit  of  a chief  slain 
in  war.  It  will  snatch  up  the  sacrilegious  criminal 
and  bear  him  to  the  great  Beyond. 

It  is  a horrible  catastrophe  to  meet  with  certain 
Ghouls,  whose  method  of  progression  is  a rolling 
motion  like  that  of  a barrel,  and  who  devour  all  the 
refuse  of  the  roads.  If  a woman  is  with  you  their 
vengeance  will  fall  upon  her.  She  will  become 
barren  and  gradually  rot  away. 

On  moonlight  nights  young  warriors  often  meet 
with  ravishing  nymphs  who  beckon  them  to  follow 
into  the  depths  of  the  forest.  The  loveliness  and 
wiles  of  these  mystic  temptresses  soon  overpower 


RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS  AND  RITES  105 

the  strongest  will  and  the  young  men  yield  to  the 
spell  and  disappear  in  the  darkness.  Soon  the  vision 
vanishes.  The  victims,  terror-stricken,  walk  round 
in  fruitless  circles  until  dawn.  Their  tormentors 
are  malignant  spirits  who  assume  the  form  of  lovely 
nymphs  solely  to  gratify  their  cunning  spite  by 
hindering  and  terrorizing  their  victims. 

Among  the  numerous  uncivilized  groups  of  Indo- 
China  it  is  curious  that  only  one  offers  the  peculiar 
characteristic  of  possessing  a totem.  The  “ Man  ” or 
“ Yaos  ” believe  that  their  first  ancestor  was  a dog. 
Accordingly,  their  veneration  for  that  animal  is  pro- 
found, and  it  is  strictly  forbidden  to  use  its  flesh  for  food. 

If  we  are  to  believe  one  legend  which  at  least  has 
the  sanction  of  general  acceptance,  about  525  b.c. 
Pen  Hung,  who  was  at  that  time  ruler  of  the  Chinese 
province  of  Su,  promised  his  daughter’s  hand  and  the 
half  of  his  kingdom  to  the  hero  who  should  rid  him 
of  the  conquering  marauder  Cu-Hung,  who  was 
menacing  his  security.  The  invader’s  reputation 
for  valour  had  preceded  him  and  was  such  that  no 
man  dared  cross  swords  with  him.  When  all 
seemed  lost  a dog  named  Phan-Hu  undertook  the 
task  of  destroying  the  enemy,  and,  having  succeeded 
in  slaying  Cu-Hung  in  mortal  combat,  he  returned 
to  claim  from  the  King  the  fulfilment  of  his  promise. 

The  King  gave  his  daughter  to  the  victor,  but  in 
order  to  keep  to  himself  the  more  fertile  portion  of 
his  kingdom,  he  assigned  only  the  uncultivated 
mountain-tops  as  the  dog’s  share.  This  unfairness 


io6  RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS  AND  RITES 


was  resented  by  the  Dog-King,  and  to  remedy  it 
special  concessions  were  granted  to  his  descendants. 

The  copy  of  a charter  in  which  these  privileges 
are  set  forth  is  still  preserved  among  what  we  may 
call  the  archives  of  the  “ Man.”  This  apocryphal 
document  has  been  translated  by  Colonel  Bonifacy 
of  the  Colonial  Infantry,  who  was  the  first  to  call 
the  attention  of  Europeans  to  its  existence.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  we  are  to  believe  the  twelfth- 
century  historian  Fan-Chi-Hu,  the  dog  Phan-Hu 
was  no  other  than  a savage  who  took  that  name  and 
did  in  fact  marry  a princess  as  the  prize  for  a very 
remarkable  triumph  in  a personal  combat. 

However  that  may  be,  it  is  incontestable  that 
individuals  are  found  in  every  country  whose  exces- 
sive hairiness  suggests  a striking  resemblance  to  the 
dog,  especially  as  regards  the  face.  The  Toda  of 
India  and  the  Birmans  have  recently  furnished  several 
striking  examples  of  the  freak  which  is  popularly 
known  as  the  “ dog-faced  man.”  But  to  return  to 
the  legend,  we  may  at  least  conclude  that  the  marriage 
took  place  at  a much  earlier  period  than  that  suggested. 

The  “ Man,”  the  issue  of  this  union,  have  shown 
a marked  tendency  to  expand.  From  the  mountain- 
tops  which  formed  their  original  kingdom  they  have 
penetrated  into  Tonkin,  Annam  and  the  region  of 
the  lakes.  They  seem  to  have  made  ample  use  of 
a provision  in  their  ancient  Charter  which  entitled 
them  to  set  fire  to  any  forest  which  impeded  their 
progress.  They  claim  that  this  authority  is  still 


RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS  AND  RITES  107 

valid  and  subsisting,  and  we  had  the  greatest  difficulty 
in  enforcing  obedience  to  our  forest  regulations. 
The  most  interesting  feature  of  this  ethnical  group 
is  that  it  shows  undoubted  traces  of  the  existence 
of  an  alliance  formed  in  immemorial  times  with  some 
species  of  animal.  Now  the  underlying  idea  of 
totemism  is  that  of  a compact  between  an  aggrega- 
tion (family,  or  group)  of  human  beings  and  some 
animal  species  from  which  has  sprung  a relationship  at 
once  physical  and  social. 

The  recent  controversy  over  the  definition  of 
totemism  seems  to  make  it  both  redundant  and 
impertinent  for  me  to  enlarge  on  a subject  which 
is  still  fresh  in  the  memory  of  all.  Nor  is  the  matter 
of  great  moment,  for  I am  convinced  that,  with  few 
exceptions,  if  the  peoples  whom  I am  studying  have 
any  connection  with  these  quite  special  phenomena, 
that  connection  is  too  remote  to  be  regarded  as  a 
basis  for  any  satisfactory  deductions. 

Besides,  it  is  well  known  that  competent  observers 
have  frequently  confused  totemic  practices  with 
certain  customs  whose  origin  is  rather  to  be  looked 
for  in  zoolatry  or  theriolatry  {ther,  a wild  beast). 

Theriolatry  embraces  such  curiosities  as  tiger 
and  crocodile-worship,  while  zoolatry  signifies  the 
worship  of  the  domestic  animals.  It  must  be 
admitted  that  when  the  totem  of  a group  is  a wild 
beast  the  totemism  is  probably  theriolatric,  but  it 
is  impossible  to  dispute  van  Gennep’s  statement 
that  all  theriolatry  is  not  necessarily  totemic. 


io8  RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS  AND  RITES 


Organization  in  groups  or  totemic  clans  is  only 
found  among  races  that  are  just  emerging  from 
barbarism,  and  proof  is  not  lacking  that  several  peoples 
in  classical  antiquity  had  passed  through  that  stage  of 
progress  before  the  period  of  recorded  history  begins. 

Sorcerers,  among  the  Moi,  fall  into  two  categories, 
those  who  are  gifted  with  the  faculty  of  divination 
whereby  the  guilty  can  be  detected,  and  those  whose 
exorcisms  are  confined  and  directed  to  the  healing 
of  disease. 

As  a rule  the  Spirit  himself  selects  the  individual 
whom  he  proposes  to  endow  with  these  divine 
functions. 

The  first  intimation  to  the  happy  mortal  on  whom 
the  choice  of  Heaven  has  thus  fallen  is  a feeling  of 
violent  colic  or  sickness  of  a peculiar  kind  which 
leaves  no  doubt  as  to  its  message  or  mission.  The 
sufferer  suffers  gladly. 

It  is  by  no  means  the  rule  that  initiation  is  followed 
by  an  immediate  assumption  of  the  divine  functions. 
In  most  cases  a prolonged  interval  elapses,  for  a 
candidate  who  feels  unequal  to  the  role  thus  suddenly 
thrust  upon  him  will  prefer  exile  rather  than  a return 
to  the  ranks  of  common  mortals,  a set-back  which 
would  make  him  a public  laughing-stock. 

Among  the  Djarai,  one  of  the  most  important  of 
the  Indo-Chinese  groups,  there  are  two  sorcerers  of 
the  greatest  renown,  known  as  the  “ King  of  Fire  ” 
and  the  “ King  of  Water.” 

It  is  probable  that  these  mythological  names 


RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS  AND  RITES  109 

originally  personified  the  incarnation  of  Agni,  God 
of  Fire,  and  Varouna,  God  of  Water,  and  are  them- 
selves traces  of  Brahminism  which  at  one  time 
exercised  immense  influence  over  the  southern  Indo- 
Chinese  peoples  and  which  cannot  be  said  to  be 
entirely  defunct  to-day 

The  Hindu  god  Agni  is  always  represented  as 
armed  with  a lance.  The  “ King  of  Fire  ” carries, 
not  a lance,  but  a sword,  to  which  an  extraordinary 
magical  power  is  attributed.  If  its  guardian  were 
to  draw  it  merely  an  inch  or  two  from  its  scabbard 
the  sun  would  cease  to  illumine  the  earth.  If  he 
drew  it  out  altogether  a paralysing  lethargy  would 
settle  upon  his  subjects. 

Hardly  less  astonishing  are  the  powers  ascribed  to 
the  two  fetishes  which  are  in  the  official  keeping  of 
the  “ King  of  Water.”  One  is  the  fruit  of  a creeper 
which  shows  not  the  slightest  trace  of  decay  though 
it  was  plucked  at  the  time  of  the  Deluge.  The  other 
is  a sacred  rattan  which,  though  of  immemorial 
antiquity,  looks  as  fresh  as  on  its  first  day  of  existence. 
The  owner  of  these  talismans  has  only  to  utter  a 
word  and  the  universe  will  disappear  beneath  the 
celestial  cataracts. 

The  Cambodians  and  the  Cham  assert  that  these 
talismans  formerly  belonged  to  their  kings  and  were 
stolen  from  them  by  treachery.  More  than  once  they 
have  organized  expeditions  to  recover  their  treasure, 
but  the  Spirits  have  willed  otherwise,  and  the  Djarai 
have  never  had  any  difficulty  in  repelling  the  invaders. 


no  RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS  AND  RITES 


The  predecessors  of  Norodom,  as  long  as  they 
held  sway  and  directed  the  destinies  of  Cambodia, 
brought  presents  each  year  to  their  cousins,  the 
Kings  of  the  Savage  Lands.  These  gifts  took  the 
form  of  an  elephant  gorgeously  caparisoned,  a quantity 
of  brass  and  some  superb  pieces  of  silk  destined  for 
the  sheath  of  the  sacred  sword.  As  a fitting  reply 
to  this  act  of  homage,  the  King  of  Fire  condescended 
to  leave  the  imprint  of  his  august  finger  on  a cake 
of  wax,  which  was  then  sent  to  Pnom-Penh,  and 
on  two  gourds  filled  with  rice. 

India,  as  well  as  Cambodia,  is  familiar  with  the 
custom  of  preserving  the  print  of  the  foot  or  hand 
of  anyone  who  has  become  an  object  of  veneration. 
Oil  of  sesame  figures  frequently  in  ritual  sacrifices, 
especially  when  offered  by  those  guilty  of  intemper- 
ance. It  is  said  to  purify  the  worshipper  and  be 
grateful  to  the  outraged  Spirit. 

Wax  and  corn  are  alleged  to  have  a remarkably 
soothing  effect  on  Spirits  with  a tendency  to  active 
malevolence. 

But  to  return  to  the  two  Potentates,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  they  have  no  effective  political 
authority,  tho'ugh  their  influence  in  the  sphere  of 
religion  is  unchallenged. 

Their  residences  lie  at  a distance  of  several  miles 
from  each  other  on  opposite  sides  of  the  watershed 
between  the  rivers  of  Annam  and  the  lakes. 

Their  offices  are  hereditary  and,  if  we  are  to  believe 
the  current  legend,  the  family  are  always  present 


RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS  AND  RITES  iii 


at  the  death  of  a pontiff  to  assist  his  passage  to  the 
next  world.  This  is  not  from  any  urgent  desire  to 
succeed  him  but  to  accomplish  a traditional  rite 
The  next  step  in  the  proceedings  is  remarkable. 
The  individual  on  whom  the  mantle  of  the  deceased 
has  fallen  by  hereditary  right  takes  refuge  in  flight. 
He  is  pursued  and  caught,  and  in  spite  of  his  repeated 
refusals  is  compelled  to  continue  the  dynasty. 

This  solemn  mockery,  parading  as  a custom,  is 
by  no  means  confined  to  the  group  of  which  I am 
speaking.  In  all  lands  and  all  periods  men  are  to  be 
found  who  meet  their  appointment  to  places  of  high 
honour  with  sincere  or  insincere  refusals.  For  one 
case  of  genuine  apprehension  of  unfitness  there  are 
ten  of  mock-modesty. 

In  many  cases,  it  must  be  admitted,  the  office  of 
Chief  is  both  onerous  and  precarious.  Sometimes 
the  Chief  is  only  the  titular  head  of  the  tribe,  bound 
hand  and  foot  by  custom  and  tradition  and  held 
responsible  for  all  the  misfortunes  that  overtake  his 
country  during  his  reign.  In  these  circumstances 
it  is  hardly  to  be  wondered  at  that  there  is  some 
misgiving  among  those  elected  to  the  burdensome 
office.  The  Princes  of  Loango,  the  Sheik  of  Gardaia, 
and  the  King  of  the  Hobbe  in  Central  Nigeria  all 
take  to  ignominious  flight  when  their  turn  comes 
to  assume  the  reins  of  government. 

In  most  cases,  however,  the  refusal  has  become  a 
tradition,  whether  spontaneous  in  its  origin  or  not. 
The  Moslem  is  doing  no  more  than  to  imitate 


1 12  RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS  AND  RITES 


Mahomet’s  modest  denials  when  the  angel  Gabriel 
came  to  announce  his  selection  as  the  prophet  of 
Allah.  Even  in  our  days,  how  many  times  have  we 
not  seen  the  good  citizen  professing  his  unworthiness 
of  a proffered  honour  and  accepting  under  the 
pretence  of  compulsion  that  on  which  his  heart  has 
long  been  set ! 

We  have  an  interesting  account  of  a visit  to  the 
“ King  of  Fire  ” from  the  lips  of  Commandant 
Cupet  of  the  Pavie  mission.  The  Potentate  put 
every  conceivable  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  expedition 
and  spared  no  pains  to  make  their  residence,  in  the 
country  as  uncomfortable  as  possible.  Having  sur- 
mounted these  obstacles,  however,  the  explorers 
were  faced  with  a flat  refusal  to  allow  them  to  depart. 
The  situation  was  becoming  extremely  strained  when 
a happy  accident  relieved  it.  The  Pontiff  chanced 
to  see  a compass,  and  was  so  impressed  by  the  move- 
ments of  the  magnetic  needle,  which  he  attributed 
to  some  magic  power,  that  he  withdrew  his  opposition 
and  allowed  the  expedition  to  proceed  unmolested. 

Tragically  otherwise  was  the  experience  of  my 
friend  Prosper  Odend’  Hal,  Director  of  the  Indo- 
Chinese  Civil  Service,  during  the  archaeological  and 
ethnographical  mission  of  1904. 

Some  days  before  the  departure  of  his  expedition 
under  the  auspices  of  the  French  School  in  the  Far 
East,  he  came  to  ask  me  if  I would  lend  him  my 
Moi  vocabularies,  which  he  wished  to  complete  during 
the  journey.  In  the  course  of  our  conversation  he 


RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS  AND  RITES  113 

told  me  of  his  intention  to  dispense  with  an  escort 
other  than  an  interpreter  and  a few  boys,  with  a 
view  to  facilitating  movement  and  saving  time.  I 
had  already  had  sufficient  experience  of  the  in- 
security of  the  regions  he  proposed  to  explore  to  know 
the  danger  of  such  a course,  and  I exhausted  every 
argument  to  turn  him  from  his  purpose.  The 
country  was  far  from  pacified  and  the  guerilla  warfare 
which  detached  bodies  of  the  Moi  carried  on  against 
us  seemed  likely  at  any  moment  to  break  out  in  open 
conflict.  Nothing  appeared  to  me  more  foolhardy 
than  to  go  among  them  defenceless  at  a time  when 
force  was  the  only  argument  they  could  appreciate. 
Unhappily  Odend’  Hal  remained  firm  in  his  convic- 
tion that  a mark  of  confidence  would  fire  their 
imaginations  and  touch  their  hearts.  He  professed 
a high  regard  for  these  unregenerate  savages  and 
endowed  them,  quite  gratuitously,  with  all  manner 
of  virtues. 

This  blind  confidence  was  the  cause  of  his  undoing. 
He  started  from  Phan-Rang  at  the  end  of  March, 
crossed  the  Annamite  range,  the  mountains  of  Lang- 
bian  and  the  plateau  of  the  Darlac,  then  penetrated 
into  the  interior  of  Phuyen  (Annam),  the  land  of  the 
“ King  of  Fire.” 

It  seems  that  from  the  first  he  had  made  up  his 
mind  to  see  the  renowned  sacred  sword.  After 
much  negotiation,  its  royal  owner  had  intimated 
his  pleasure  to  gratify  the  desire  and  invited  the 
explorer  to  a great  banquet  to  be  given  in  his  house. 

8 


1 14  RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS  AND  RITES 

On  the  seventh  of  April  Odend’  Hal  attended, 
accompanied  only  by  his  interpreter  and  unarmed, 
to  demonstrate  his  confidence  in  the  loyalty  of  his 
host.  Some  hours  later  his  servants  tvere  aroused 
by  a report  of  fire.  In  an  isolated  hut,  already 
wrapped  in  flames,  they  found  the  bodies  of  the  two 
victims  pierced  through  and  through  with  spears. 

Odend’  Hal  was  a senior  officer  of  the  same  standing 
as  myself.  He  had  taken  part  in  our  earliest  expedi- 
tions at  the  time  of  the  conquest,  and  lived  more 
than  twenty  years  in  the  country,  where  his  kindness 
and  outstanding  ability  had  won  universal  respect. 

More  than  one  punitive  expedition  had  to  be 
sent  out  after  this  outrage,  and  some  of  them  met 
tvith  open  and  unremitting  hostility  from  detached 
bodies  of  the  Moi.  I have  mentioned  before  that 
even  during  the  mission  on  which  I was  engaged 
MM.  Canivey  and  Barbu,  who  were  in  command  of 
the  Militia,  had  to  organize  a flying  column  to  operate 
to  the  north  of  Langbian,  where  we  were  then  en- 
gaged on  a topographical  survey.  These  two  officers 
themselves  commanded  the  force,  which  was  composed 
of  fifty  militiamen  and  the  same  number  of  coolies. 

They  left  Dalat,  where  we  had  made  our  head- 
quarters, and  marched  in  the  direction  of  the  Darlac. 
Within  a few  days  they  were  in  touch  with  the  rebels, 
who  pursued  the  policy  of  retiring  before  their 
advance,  abandoning  their  villages  and  attempting 
to  draw  the  column  into  the  forest-clad  mountains, 
where  numerous  defiles  offered  special  advantages 


RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS  AND  RITES  115 

for  guerilla  warfare.  Captain  Canivey  was  not  to  be 
deceived  by  such  tactics,  and  advisedly  gave  the  order 
for  retreat,  leaving  the  subjugation  of  the  rebels  to 
a later  occasion. 

When  the  first  stage  of  the  return  journey  was 
almost  completed  the  advance-guard  reported 
towards  evening  that  their  progress  was  impeded 
by  small  bamboo  stakes  fixed  into  the  ground.  Rifle 
in  hand  Canivey  at  once  went  forward,  suspecting 
an  ambush.  Behind  the  palisade  of  thorny  bamboo 
he  thought  he  detected  several  dark  dots  moving 
hither  and  thither.  Suddenly  two  arrows,  then  a 
third,  struck  him,  and  a fourth  followed.  Captain 
Barbu,  who  rushed  to  the  rescue,  was  received  by  a 
shower  of  missiles. 

The  Linhs,  or  native  soldiers,  threw  themselves 
flat  on  the  ground  and  fired  volley  after  volley  in  the 
direction  of  the  attack.  The  Moi  replied  with  an 
avalanche  of  arrows  and  javelins,  but  the  rapidity  of 
our  fire  soon  proved  too  much  for  them  and,  after 
their  ranks  had  been  seriously  depleted,  they  gave 
way  and  fled,  leaving  all  but  a few  of  their  wounded. 
We  made  prisoners  of  all  the  rebels  thus  left  to 
their  fate  and  buried  the  corpses  in  an  effective,  if 
summary,  manner. 

It  was  long  before  MM.  Canivey  and  Barbu  re- 
covered from  their  wounds,  but  after  many  anxious 
moments  their  natural  vitality  triumphed,  and  within 
a short  time  a new  expedition  was  organized  which 
proved  a complete  success. 


8* 


CHAPTER  VI 

RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  {continued) 

Tribal  and  proprietary  signs — Tattooing  and  mutilation — Principles  and 
practice  of  the  taboo — Its  survival  in  modern  Europe — The  incarna- 
tion of  Spirits  in  stones,  trees,  and  animals — Belief  in  the  magic  powers 
of  the  tiger — Animal-poison — Bones  as  a charm — A protecting  ear — 
Ex-votos  offered  to  the  Spirit  of  the  tiger — Superstitions  about 
monkeys — Hunting  rites. 

M OST  of  the  barbarous  races  of  aU  countries 
seek  to  preserve  their  identity  and  distinguish 
themselves  from  their  neighbours  by  some  marked 
peculiarity  either  of  dress,  jewels  and  ornaments,  or 
even  by  some  particular  mutilation  of  the  body. 

Africa  shows  a wonderful  variety  of  tribal  symbols. 
Among  the  most  general  of  these  are  the  elliptical 
or  concentric  marks  of  a red-hot  iron  on  the  face  and 
breast  which  are  considered  such  an  embellishment 
by  the  Bangendi  of  the  Belgian  Congo.  Another 
common  form  is  the  artificial  elongation  of  the 
breasts  caused  by  cords  or  the  weight  of  heavy 
ropes  of  pearls.  This  fashion  is  in  vogue  mainly 
among  the  Isambo  of  the  same  region.  Then  again 
it  is  quite  usual  for  certain  classes  to  dye  their  hair 
red,  shave  off  their  eyebrows  and  tear  out  their  eye- 
lashes and  moustaches.  The  most  widely  practised 

ii6 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


117 

form  of  mutilation,  however,  is  that  of  the  jaw. 
The  Bushongo,  also  of  the  Belgian  Congo,  extract 
the  two  incisors  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  some  of  the 
women  have  the  lower  incisors  cut  in  such  a way 
as  to  form  a hoUow  in  the  centre. 

Some  of  these  practices  are  found  among  the  Moi 
and  more  particularly  the  elongation  of  the  ears 
and  breasts  and  the  extraction  or  pointing  of  the 
teeth.  This  last  mutilation  takes  place  at  the  age 
of  puberty,  a fact  which  suggests  that  it  forms  part 
of  the  complex  of  rites  which  mark  the  passing  of 
the  young  from  one  state  to  another,  or  which  cele- 
brate their  initiation  into  the  full  status  of  member- 
ship of  the  group.  If  so,  it  merely  follows  a custom 
which  is  encountered  in  all  latitudes. 

Among  the  Moi  the  operation  of  filing  lasts  from 
ten  to  fifteen  days.  The  instrument  employed  is  a 
hard  stone,  which  is  found  in  the  bed  of  certain  rivers, 
notably  the  river  of  Phanrang.  It  is  the  subject  of  a 
flourishing  export  trade  to  the  tribes  of  the  interior. 
The  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw  are  filed  to  resemble  a 
triangle,  or  perhaps  the  teeth  of  a cat,  those  of  the 
upper  jaw  are  cut  in  the  form  of  a semicircle  or 
filed  down  to  the  level  of  the  gums.  Although  this 
mutilation  is  extremely  painful,  so  great  is  the  in- 
fluence of  tradition  that  no  man  would  dream  of 
dispensing  with  it.  For  as  the  piercing  of  the  lobe 
of  the  ear  devotes  a woman  to  perpetual  spinster- 
hood,  so  the  neglect  to  be  filed  deprives  a man  of  the 
right  to  found  a family. 


ii8  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

In  Australia  the  young  men  submit  to  the  ex- 
traction of  several  of  their  teeth  at  the  moment  of 
initiation.  Sometimes  the  teeth  thus  removed  are 
hidden  under  the  bark  of  a tree  unknown  to  their 
late  owner.  If  he  dies  the  tree  is  dried  by  fire  and 
becomes  a monument  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of 
the  deceased.  This  is  a striking  example  of  sym- 
pathetic magic,  of  which  I have  spoken  before. 

In  Africa  the  village  blacksmith  is  the  appointed 
minister  to  perform  the  rite  of  dressing  the  teeth. 
He  places  a small  iron  ring  against  the  tooth  and 
strikes  it  with  a light  hammer.  It  would  be  natural 
to  suppose  that  this  process  would  be  even  more 
painful  than  the  filing.  What  matter  ! In  the  eyes 
of  the  savage  the  suffering  involved  is  the  most  meri- 
torious part  of  the  operation.  Our  coolies  could 
hardly  contain  their  indignation  at  the  suggestion  that 
an  ansesthetic  should  first  be  administered.  Painless 
filing  would  be  a stigma  to  man,  an  outrage  to  Heaven  ! 

In  Africa  the  practice  is  extended  to  women  as 
well  as  men  in  several  groups,  though  only  after 
marriage,  but  in  Indo-China  I never  met  any 
women  who  had  undergone  the  treatment. 

It  is  well  known  that  mutilations  of  this  kind 
are  not  the  only  badge  of  race  which  distinguishes 
one  group  from  another,  for  it  seems  plain  that 
tattooing  also  originated  in  a desire  to  serve  the 
same  purpose. 

The  islanders  of  Timor  employ  hereditary  marks 
tattooed  on  the  cheeks,  the  chin,  or  the  breasts  of 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


119 

the  women,  to  distinguish  the  different  families. 
The  same  custom  is  followed  in  New  Guinea.  Most 
of  these  symbols  are  compounded  of  an  ideograph 
and  a letter  of  the  alphabet.  Their  use  is  extended 
to  distinguish  owners  of  such  things  as  shields  and 
weapons.  Here  they  form  a kind  of  trade-mark  of 
which  the  owner  alone  knows  the  meaning,  and 
which  all  others  are  prohibited  from  infringing.  (If 
I had  known  of  this  peculiarity  during  my  travels 
among  the  Moi,  I should  have  been  more  careful  in 
noting  the  tattoo  marks  which  are  to  be  met  with 
among  the  dwellers  by  the  lakes  and  also  the  signs 
which  are  engraved  on  various  objects.  As  it  was 
I merely  observed  the  blue  markings  which  adorned 
the  legs  of  the  men  and  the  curious  red  hieroglyphics 
inscribed  in  rectangles  on  their  arms  and  backs.  It 
is  very  likely  that  these  were  also  the  symbols  of 
relationship  or  ownership.) 

It  is  well  to  remind  ourselves  that  the  custom 
exists  even  in  Europe  to-day.  Some  of  the  Catholic 
women  of  Bosnia  still  practise  the  tattooing  of  the 
forearm  or  chest  with  the  form  of  a Latin  cross.  The 
practice  seems  to  date  from  the  twelfth  century  and 
to  be  inspired  by  a desire  for  a visible  sign  of  their 
religious  isolation,  for  they  live  among  a Mohammedan 
population  which  has  never  been  distinguished  for 
its  tolerance. 

In  whatever  manner  the  custom  came  into  being 
there  is  little  variety  in  the  substance  used  in  the 
process.  The  skin  is  firmly  stretched  and  the  figure 


120  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

lightly  sketched  upon  it.  Then  a number  of  punctures 
very  close  together  are  made  with  a needle  dipped  in 
the  staining  matter  and  wrapped  in  cotton  almost  up 
to  the  point.  The  part  is  then  bandaged  until  the 
lapse  of  a fixed  period,  after  which  all  covering  is 
taken  off  and  the  indelible  traces,  changed  in  colour 
to  a Prussian  blue,  remain  on  the  skin. 

Of  course  the  operation  is  attended  with  all  manner 
of  prayers  and  ceremonial.  It  may  not  take  place 
on  certain  days  which  are  regarded  as  unfavourable, 
and  never  without  the  approval  and  assistance  of 
the  Sorcerer.  This  again  recalls  the  custom  of  the 
Catholics  of  Bosnia,  who  invariably  select  Sunday  or 
some  other  holy  day  for  the  ceremony  of  engraving 
the  sacred  sign. 

Like  the  Moi,  the  youths  of  the  lower  Congo  reside 
in  a specially  reserved  dwelling  when  the  time  has 
come  for  them  to  undergo  the  rites  associated  with 
initiation  into  full  citizenship.  In  Africa,  however, 
this  residence  is  always  outside  the  village  and  the  pro- 
fane are  prohibited  from  entering  under  pain  of  death. 
Further,  its  principal  function  is  to  accommodate 
those  who  intend  to  enter  the  sect  of  the  “ Nkimba  ” 
(meaning  “ initiation  ”),  members  of  which  take  the 
name  of  “ Nkissi  ” (“  enchanted  ”).  Sometimes  this 
voluntary  retirement  lasts  as  long  as  a year. 

A widespread,  but  unfounded,  belief  prevails  that 
races  in  a rudimentary  state  of  civilization  enjoy  greater 
licence  than  those  which  have  advanced  further  along 
the  path  of  progress.  On  the  contrary,  the  savage 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  121 

is  subject  to  all  manner  of  restrictions  which  make 
freedom  of  will  almost  a mockery.  Not  alone  his 
acts  but  even  his  feelings  and  desires  are  hedged  about 
with  repressive  regulations.  The  simple  explana- 
tion is  that  he  sees  the  supernatural  in  a very  different 
light  from  us  and  brings  it  into  the  smallest  action 
of  his  daily  life.  Once  granted  that  he  is  not  a free 
agent,  and  that  unseen  powers  have  to  be  consulted 
at  every  end  and  turn,  it  follows  logically  that  a 
number  of  prohibitions  arise  which  it  is  convenient 
to  refer  to  in  this  book  as  “ Taboos,”  a generic  term 
which  has  been  used  by  the  Polynesians  and  now 
adopted  almost  universally  by  ethnologists. 

Taboos  are  of  every  conceivable  kind,  royal, 
sacerdotal,  sexual,  proprietary,  and  they  all  spring 
from  the  fundamental  notion  that  it  is  necessary  to 
regulate  every  action  in  accordance  with  the  proba- 
bility of  arousing  or  conciliating  divine  displeasure. 
Some  of  them  follow  as  a corollary  to  the  belief  in 
the  effect  of  magic  by  imitation  or  contact. 

Thus,  since  in  time  of  drought  rain  can  be  caused 
by  spilling  water  on  the  ground,  it  is  taboo  to  perform 
that  operation  at  a period  when  a cessation  from 
rain  is  required. 

Other  taboos  are  prophylactic.  Thus  certain 
persons,  cojita^ct  with  whom  is  considered  to  be 
prejudicial  to  morals,  are  isolated  to  preserve  the 
virtue  of  the  others. 

I have  already  recounted  the  prohibitions  of  every 
kind  which  regulate  the  behaviour  of  a woman  during 


122 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


pregnancy.  Here  again  the  motive  is  the  same. 
The  rules  as  to  isolation  and  the  restriction  of  diet 
have  no  other  object  than  to  preserve  her  from 
dangers  which  are  ever  hovering  around. 

Other  taboos  are  directed  towards  the  preservation 
of  health  and  physical  strength,  and  apply  largely 
to  kings,  chiefs  and  officials.  Thus  in  Japan 
princes  were  never  permitted  to  put  their  feet  on 
the  ground.  The  Mikado  was  compelled  to  spend 
several  hours  motionless  on  the  throne.  He  violated 
the  injunction  if  he  even  turned  his  head.  The  sun 
must  never  shine  on  his  face,  and  on  no  account 
must  he  cut  his  nails,  hair,  or  beard.  Even  to-day 
the  King  of  Cambodia  is  not  allowed  to  be  in  a house 
of  more  than  one  story  lest  some  human  being 
should  pass  over  his  head.  Accordingly  the  ceilings 
of  his  palace  are  made  of  glass  so  that  no  one  shall 
commit  such  an  act  of  treason  unobserved. 

These  curious  regulations  become  more  intelligible 
when  we  remember  that  the  chief  of  a savage  tribe 
is  regarded  as  the  depository  of  the  health  and 
strength  of  the  whole  group,  which  is  thus  directly 
interested  in  the  preservation  of  its  ruler  from  every 
form  of  malady  and  mischance.  It  is  possible  that 
this  very  ancient  idea  is  the  origin  of  many  of  the 
rules  of  etiquette  which  are  so  punctiliously  observed 
by  the  Courts  of  certain  States. 

An  explanation  of  many  of  these  taboos  may  also 
be  sought  in  an  examination  of  the  religious  systems 
on  which  they  are  based.  For  example,  in  totemic 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


123 


groups  unions  between  persons  who  have  entered 
into  a compact  with  the  same  totem  are  invariably 
prohibited.  Accordingly  we  should  expect  to  find, 
and  do  in  fact  find,  that  exogamy  is  the  rule  among 
members  of  the  same  clan. 

The  most  superficial  observation  of  the  religious 
systems  of  all  nations  reveals  the  existence  of  taboos 
in  some  form  or  another.  They  appear  in  Christi- 
anity as  in  Buddhism,  Brahminism,  and  others  which 
dispute  among  themselves  the  title  of  the  true  faith. 

Even  outside  the  sphere  of  religious  observance 
we  know  that  certain  acts,  insignificant  in  themselves, 
are  habitually  avoided.  This  can  only  be  attri- 
buted to  a traditional  prohibition  dating  from  ancient 
times.  I myself  know  many  devout  Christians  who 
would  gaze  at  me  in  astonishment  if  I told  them 
that  many  of  their  most  cherished  beliefs  can  trace 
their  descent  from  the  precepts  of  pagans.  But  I 
spare  them  any  such  inward  perplexity  and  merely 
smile  to  myself  when  I see  them  hasten  to  put  out 
one  of  three  lights  burning  in  a room,  or  ostentatiously 
separate  two  forks  which  some  clumsy  servant  has 
put  crosswise  on  the  table. 

But  besides  aU  these  taboos  which  apply  without 
distinction  to  all  the  members  of  a group,  there  are 
others  which  concern  one  or  other  of  the  sexes,  such 
as  the  regulation  which  appoints  certain  occupations 
and  pursuits  as  proper  for  women  only,  and  vice  versa. 

Thus,  among  the  Moi  the  women  do  all  the  work 
about  the  farms  and  in  the  fields,  though  this  would 


124 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


seem  to  be  the  natural  province  of  the  men.  It  is 
easy  to  suggest  laziness  as  the  reason  for  this  reversal 
of  the  natural  order,  but  probably  the  origin  is  to 
be . sought  in  some  ancestral  tradition  long  since 
forgotten.  More  noble  occupations,  such  as  war 
and  the  chase,  are  reserved  to  the  men,  and  their 
wives,  proud  of  their  husbands’  glorious  duties,  are 
quite  content  to  play  the  part  of  beast  of  burden. 
The  difference  is  illustrated  in  many  humble  actions. 
A woman  must  carry  a burden  on  her  head  or  her 
back.  A man  submits  to  no  such  indignity.  He 
divides  the  load  into  two  parts,  hangs  one  on  each 
end  of  a bamboo  pole  and  balances  them  across  his 
shoulder.  It  is  again  necessary  to  recall  that  Europe 
shows  traces  of  this  conception  which  have  hitherto 
remained  unexplained.  Why  is  it  natural  for  a woman 
in  Austria  to  act  as  a mason’s  labourer,  while  in 
France  it  would  be  deemed  an  outrage  to  impose  such 
laborious  duties  ? Why  is  the  office  of  lemonade- 
seller  confined  to  men  in  France,  while  in  Austria 
that  role  is  invariably  played  by  women  ? The  list  of 
these  anomalies  is  lengthy  and  would  furnish  evidence 
for  a plausible  argument  that  the  feminist  movement 
is  no  more  than  the  belated  revenge  of  a sex  whose 
activities  have  been  too  long  checked  by  the  arbitrary 
prohibitions  of  man. 

We  have  now  seen  that  certain  persons,  natural 
and  supernatural,  certain  objects,  and  even  actions, 
are  deemed  harmful  and  to  be  avoided  at  all  costs. 
It  is  therefore  not  altogether  surprising  that  the 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  125 

ruly  righteous  avoid  even  referring  to  those  persons, 
objects,  or  actions. 

The  Moi,  for  example,  will  never  utter  the  word 
“ Tiger,”  an  animal  he  regards  with  a kind  of  holy 
awe,  and  which  has  been  raised  to  the  rank  of  a deity. 
If  he  must  refer  to  the  creature  he  calls  it  “ The 
Master  ” or  “ The  Lofty  One,”  or  else  uses  some 
obvious  paraphrase  the  sense  of  which  escapes  no  one. 

Hunting  one  day  in  the  forest,  I happened  to 
meet  a little  girl  who  was  gathering  bamboo  shoots 
for  the  family  meal.  I chanced  to  ask  her  whether 
peacocks  and  heathcocks  were  to  be  found  in  those 
regions. 

“ Oh,  yes,”  she  replied,  “ there  were  several  here 
just  now,  but  they  have  gone.  . . . There  is  no  peace 
among  us,”  and  a few  moments  after,  “ We  fear.” 

I had  little  difficulty  in  guessing  the  object  of 
her  terror  though  she  dared  not  put  it  into  words, 
but  to  convince  myself,  and  partly,  I fear,  from  an 
unmannerly  enjoyment  of  her  confusion,  I feigned 
ignorance  and  asked  again  : 

“ But  what  do  you  fear  ? ” 

She  hesitated  a moment,  half  paralysed  with  fear 
at  the  thought  of  uttering  the  dread  name,  then 
recovered  her  composure  and  with  sly  malice  replied  : 

“ We  fear  Heaven.” 

Heaven,  that  was  the  Tiger  without  doubt ! The 
following  week  I learnt  with  tragic  force  how  natural 
were  her  fears,  for  she  fell  a victim,  by  no  means 
the  first,  to  the  terrible  enemy. 


126 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


s-^The  incident  remains  engraved  on  my  memory 
both  for  the  melancholy  interest  attaching  to  it, 
and  also  because  it  was  the  first  time  I had  come  into 
actual  contact  with  the  taboo  which  forbids  certain 
names  to  be  uttered  or  requires  the  employment  of 
a special  language  when  prohibited  subjects  are  to 
be  referred  to. 

Explanations  have  often  been  attempted  of  the 
belief  commonly  held  by  savages  in  the  incarnation 
of  Spirits  in  forms  other  than  that  of  a human  being. 
The  most  natural  theory  is  probably  the  most  obvious. 
Since  the  world  began  all  peoples'  have  noticed  that 
man  is  one  of  the  most  perishable  of  the  objects 
about  them.  Is  it  likely,  they  ask,  that  the  Spirits 
would  choose  so  destructible  a home  for  their  earthly 
habitation  ? Surely  they  would  select  a place  with 
greater  chances  of  permanence,  a stone,  for  example, 
or  a tree  ? Hence  the  worship  of  these  objects, 
not  for  any  intrinsic  value,  but  because  they  are 
housing  Spirits. 

Among  the  Bahnar,  a Moi  group,  certain  flints 
of  immense  age  are  objects  of  the  greatest  veneration. 
Frequently  one  of  these  stones  is  raised  on  high  on 
a pedestal  of  bamboos  and  the  more  curious  they 
are  in  appearance,  the  more  reverence  is  bestowed 
upon  them.  The  conception  of  the  incarnation  of 
a deity  in  an  animal  must  be  traced  back  to  the  same 
idea.  Primitive  man  naturally  attributed  to  animals, 
which  sometimes  preyed  upon  him,  powers  superior  to 
his  own.  He  was  far  from  thinking  himself  the  lord 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


127 


of  creation  and  ascribed  that  superiority  to  the 
presence  of  a Spirit  incarnated  in  the  animal  and 
directing  its  actions.  The  Egyptians  worshipped 
the  crocodile  under  various  names,  such  as  “ Lord 
of  the  Waters,”  and  “ The  Devourer.”  If  such  a 
belief  prevailed  among  an  advanced  people  such  as 
these,  it  is  hardly  surprising  that  the  barbarous 
races  of  Indo-China  should  fall  into  the  same  error. 

We  find,  in  fact,  among  these  races  clear  traces  of 
litholatry  (from  the  Greek  lithos,  a stone),  dendrolatry 
(dendron,  a tree),  and  theriolatry  (ther,  a wild  beast). 

It  is  quite  usual  to  find  some  hoary  guardian,  such 
as  a fig-tree  or  ebony  tree,  stationed  at  the  entrance 
of  a village.  It  shelters  with  its  spreading  foliage  a 
minute  house  raised  on  piles  and  dedicated  to  the 
Genius  of  the  Soil  or  the  Master  of  the  Earth. 
Within  this  pagoda  is  a brazier  from  which  the  fumes 
of  incense  are  always  rising.  The  offerings  which 
are  brought  will  call  down  the  blessing  of  Heaven  on 
the  harvest,  and  in  particular  will  inspire  the  Genius 
to  wreak  vengeance  on  thieves  who  attempt  to  rob 
the  public  granary.  A few  canes  hung  on  the  walls 
of  this  little  building  serve  to  put  a holy  fear  in  the 
less  imaginative  visitors.  They  are  the  symbol  of 
the  punishment  which  will  be  meted  out  to  robbers. 

Unfortunately,  the  harvest  has  to  encounter  not 
merely  the  depredations  of  the  evilly-disposed,  but 
also  the  attacks  of  animal  enemies  such  as  the  boar 
and  the  deer.  To  ward  off  this  class  of  mischance 
a stretched  bow  is  hung  on  the  roof,  threatening  with 


128 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


its  arrow  any  animal  bold  enough  to  approach.  I 
may  add  that  the  farmers  frequently  use  this  hut 
as  a lair  from  which  to  shoot  the  marauders.  By 
thus  doing  the  work  of  the  Genius  they  augment 
his  reputation  and  benefit  themselves,  a very 
satisfactory  arrangement. 

Similar  rites  are  to  be  found  in  every  part  of  the 
world  from  the  earliest  times.  In  ancient  Egypt 
the  festival  of  Sokari  (the  hawk-headed  Osiris)  at 
Memphis  always  concluded  with  the  erection  of  a 
pillar  called  “ Tat  ” or  “ Ded  ” in  the  form  of  a 
tree  without  foliage.  The  same  custom  obtains 
among  the  Siamese,  the  Cambodians,  and  the 
Laotians,  where  the  “ Tat  ” is  often  to  be  seen. 
Its  origin  is  plainly  ritual.  In  the  region  of  the 
lakes  the  “ Tats  ” are  to  be  found  placed  so  close 
together  as  to  look  like  a nursery  garden.  As  a rule 
these  monuments  are  made  of  simple  hewn  masonry 
and  vary  greatly  in  size.  The  same  variety  is  to  be 
observed  in  their  form  and  design,  which  seems  to  be 
determined  by  the  individual  caprice  of  the  architect 
rather  than  by  any  conformity  to  established  custom. 
They  generally  resemble  a pyramid  in  shape,  the 
base  being  either  circular  or  square,  the  apex  assuming 
the  form  sometimes  of  a Byzantine  roof  or  that  of 
a spire.  Their  erection  is  usually  the  fulfilment  of 
a vow  or  the  commemoration  of  some  fortunate 
occurrence  in  the  family.  Among  the  Laotians  the 
number  of  “ Tats  ” which  a man  raises  is  considered 
the  measure  of  his  piety. 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


129 

In  Europe  the  same  conception  appears  in  the 
familiar  festivities  of  the  maypole. 

It  sometimes  happened  in  the  course  of  our  geo- 
detical  survey  that  we  were  compelled  to  cut  down 
a tree  which  interrupted  the  field  of  view  of  our 
instruments.  A most  interesting  scene  preceded 
the  act  of  destruction.  The  “ foreman  ” of  our 
Moi  coolies  approached  the  condemned  tree  and 
addressed  it  much  as  follows : 

“ Spirit  who  hast  made  thy  home  in  this  tree, 
we  worship  thee  and  are  come  to  claim  thy  mercy. 
The  white  mandarin,  our  relentless  master,  whose 
commands  we  cannot  but  obey,  has  bidden  us  to 
cut  down  thy  habitation,  a task  which  fills  us  with 
sadness  and  which  we  only  carry  out  with  regret. 
I adjure  thee  to  depart  at  once  from  the  place  and 
seek  a new  dwelling-place  elsewhere,  and  I pray 
thee  to  forget  the  wrong  we  do  thee,  for  we  are  not 
our  own  masters.” 

This  harangue,  accompanied  by  spitting  and  an 
immense  obeisance,  being  concluded,  the  foreman 
addressed  another  in  very  similar  terms  to  the  Lord 
Tiger,  which  in  its  character  of  undisputed  King  of 
the  Forest  has  jurisdiction  over  every  tree  within  it. 

The  tiger,  indeed,  thanks  to  its  fearful  ravages 
in  this  land  of  hilly  jungle,  is  easily  first  among  the 
animals  which  popular  superstition  has  endowed 
with  supernatural  powers.  Nor  is  this  to  be  wondered 
at,  for  Europeans  who  live  in  the  country  are  fre- 
quently obliged  to  confess  themselves  thwarted  and 

9 


130  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

even  driven  away  by  the  depredations  of  this  ferocious 
beast.  I have  already  mentioned  an  occasion  on 
which,  after  fourteen  nights  of  inactivity,  I was 
compelled  to  withdraw  and  abandon  the  place  to 
a tiger  which  had  carried  off  one  of  my  natives  before 
my  very  eyes.  It  was  during  this  same  fruitless 
attempt  to  get  rid  of  the  pest  that  I learnt  from  my 
escort  the  popular  superstitions  concerning  the 
powers  of  this  formidable  foe. 

In  the  first  place  their  beliefs  are  determined  by 
terror.  Everything  concerning  the  creature  is 
fantastic,  mysterious,  marvellous. 

A fearsome  natural  power  resides  in  its  whiskers, 
which  produce  the  awful  thing  known  as  animal- 
poison.  The  right  and  ability  to  invoke  this  pheno- 
menon pertain  to  the  Sorcerer  who  proceeds  in  this 
wise.  As  soon  as  a tiger  has  been  killed  or  captured 
he  puUs  out  its  whiskers  and  encloses  them  with  the 
utmost  care  in  a hollow  bamboo  stick.  A hundred 
watches  later  a snake  emerges  from  this  prison  and 
takes  refuge  in  the  garden.  The  Sorcerer  seeks  out 
the  place  where  it  lies  hidden  and  once  a year  on  the 
fifteenth  day  of  the  seventh  moon  he  takes  it  a few 
grains  of  maize,  which  constitute  its  sole  nourishment. 
The  creature  rises  from  its  hole,  rears  itself  aloft, 
swallows  the  gift,  and  if  it  finds  it  to  its  taste 
leaves  a few  drops  of  poison  on  the  ground  as  a sign 
of  gratitude.  The  Sorcerer  collects  these  carefully 
in  a saucer.  According  to  the  rites  he  must  use 
this  poison  before  the  year  is  over  under  penalty 


Memorial  Stone  erected  to  a Tiger. 


[.To  lace  p.  130. 


A Hunting  Party. 


An  Elephant  and  his  Driver. 


[To  fact  p.  131. 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  13 1 

of  himself  becoming  impotent.  His  duty  is  to  mingle 
it  with  the  food  of  certain  persons  whom  the  Spirits 
will  designate. 

After  a short  time  disturbing  symptoms  make  their 
appearance.  The  patient  is  seized  with  a trembling 
fit  which  agitates  his  whole  frame.  Convulsions 
follow,  or  else  he  loses  his  sight,  or  hearing,  or  sense 
of  smell,  while  his  stomach  swells  in  a manner  alarming 
to  behold.  The  disease  soon  defies  all  treatment 
and  the  wretched  victim  expires  amidst  the  most 
atrocious  sufferings. 

It  is  easy  to  scoff,  but  every  traveller  in  these  regions 
has  known  cases  of  sudden  attacks  of  a particularly 
virulent  form  of  fever  which  manifests  itself  in  most 
alarming  forms,  such  as  suicidal  mania,  epilepsy,  pro- 
nounced deafness,  or  swelling  of  the  abdomen. 

I myself  had  an  unpleasant  practical  illustration 
of  the  unshakable  belief  in  animal-poisons  and  their 
baneful  effect.  There  was  a native  member  of  the 
mission  who  believed  himself  bewitched  in  this 
manner.  Although  he  was  in  a high  fever,  he 
stolidly  refused  all  medical  assistance  and  immediately 
coughed  up  the  mixture  which  I attempted  to  force 
down  his  throat.  Within  four  days  he  was  dead,  a 
victim  to  his  own  superstitious  ignorance.  The  most 
unfortunate  effect  of  the  tragedy,  however,  was  that 
it  only  served  to  confirm  his  companions  in  their  belief. 

It  must  not  be  believed  that  everything  pertaining 
to  the  tiger  is  necessarily  harmful.  On  the  contrary 
certain  parts  of  its  body  are  credited  with  some 

9* 


132 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


remarkably  beneficial  properties.  Thus  some  small 
bones  of  the  shoulder  are  frequently  carried  about 
as  a charm  against  the  attacks  of  the  animal  itself, 
and  also  to  give  their  owner  physical  superiority 
over  his  foes  and  preserve  him  against  an  unfavourable 
result  of  the  ordeal,  should  he  be  called  on  to  face 
that  trial.  It  is  therefore  little  surprising  that 
competition  for  this  talisman  is  often  bitter  and 
bloody  and  that  its  market  value  sometimes  exceeds 
that  of  a buffalo. 

Another  widespread  superstition  is  that  a tiger 
which,  in  springing  upon  its  prey,  is  clumsy  enough 
to  damage  the  ear,  will  abandon  its  victim  immediately 
and  never  return  to  devour  it.  Curiously  enough  we 
received  from  the  mouths  of  two  members  of  the 
mission,  M.  Millet  and  Sergeant  Valutioni,  proof  that 
this  belief  is  not  altogether  devoid  of  foundation. 
The  former  once  spent  four  days  watching  over 
the  corpse  of  a buffalo  with  a torn  ear  which  had 
been  killed  by  a tiger.  The  animal  never  returned 
to  carry  away  its  prey.  Now  we  know  that  the 
habit  of  this  carnivorous  beast  is  to  return  nightly 
to  devour  its  victims  when  their  weight  is  too  great 
to  permit  of  their  being  carried  off  immediately  to 
its  lair.  So  was  it  simple  caprice  which  prompted 
this  strange  behaviour  or  had  the  tiger  perhaps  been 
wounded  in  the  encounter  ? It  is  impossible  to 
bring  the  question  out  of  the  realm  of  surmise. 

The  Sergeant’s  experience  was  somewhat  similar. 
He  was  riding  at  nightfall  when  his  horse  suddenly 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


133 


swerved  and  nearly  threw  him  out  of  the  saddle. 
Picking  himself  up,  he  saw  a huge  tiger  leap  upon 
his  horse,  only  to  abandon  it  immediately  and  dis- 
appear into  the  jungle.  He  examined  his  mount 
for  injuries  and  discovered  that  the  only  damage  was 
that  a piece  of  its  ear  had  been  torn  off.  The  natives 
who  had  witnessed  the  attack  manifested  no  sign 
of  astonishment  and  recounted  the  numerous  occa- 
sions on  which  they  had  observed  a similar  occurrence. 

Whatever  the  truth  may  be,  it  is  in  virtue  of  in- 
cidents such  as  these  that  the  Moi  attribute  to  the 
tiger  the  faculty  of  reasoning  out  all  its  acts.  It  is 
considered  the  most  vindictive  of  creatures,  and  rather 
than  expose  themselves  to  its  vengeance  they  will 
let  all  its  misdeeds  go  unpunished,  contenting  them- 
selves with  a philosophical  resignation  to  fate.  Some- 
times the  inroads  of  tigers  cause  the  abandonment 
of  an  entire  village,  the  natives  preferring  exile  to 
gradual  decimation.  Sometimes,  however,  they  resort 
to  charms  to  ward  off  the  dread  plague.  For  instance, 
they  will  place  a box,  on  one  side  of  which  the  figure 
of  a tiger  is  rudely  carved,  in  front  of  the  principal  i 
house.  This  is  a favourite  device  of  the  Annamites,  j| 
among  whom  these  ex-votos  distinguish  a region  in- 
fested by  the  pest.  Every  time  a stranger  passes 
the  spot  it  is  his  duty  to  leave  a stone  or  a twig 
in  honour  of  “ Duc-Thay  ” the  Noble  Master,  the 
Spirit  which  has  jurisdiction  over  the  tigers,  perhaps 
the  tiger  itself. 

A supernatural  character  is  also  attributed  to  the 


134 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


monkey,  largely  on  account  of  its  agility,  its  imitative 
ability,  and  its  cunning  in  escaping  from  its  pursuers. 
The  creature  is  held  in  high  esteem  by  many  peoples, 
and  it  will  be  remembered  that  the  Hindoos  regard 
it  as  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu.  The  white  gibbon 
with  black  whiskers  is  regarded  with  great  veneration. 
One  of  my  colleagues  once  tamed  one  of  this  species 
and  taught  it  to  perform  various  domestic  duties. 
The  creature  made  his  bed,  washed  up  and  waited  at 
table.  But  it  was  extremely  jealous  and  went  into 
transports  of  anger  if  any  stranger  seemed  to  mono- 
polize its  master.  Of  course,  the  natives  attributed 
these  accomplishments  to  the  presence  of  a Spirit,  so 
my  colleague  was  baulked  of  the  credit  due  to  his 
patience.  Among  the  Phuyen,  an  orang-outang  of 
about  human  proportions  enjoyed  a most  unenviable 
reputation.  It  was  supposed  to  snatch  the  unwary 
traveller  in  its  huge,  hairy  arms  and  shake  the  breath 
out  of  him  while  uttering  screams  of  fiendish  glee. 
To  escape  such  an  embarrassing  encounter  the  natives 
who  inhabit  the  forests  in  which  the  creature  lives 
always  carry  an  armful  of  long  bamboo  shoots.  If 
they  are  attacked  the  shoots  prevent  the  orang-outang 
from  getting  a proper  grip  of  its  victim,  who  thus 
escapes  without  difficulty. 

A widely  prevalent  superstition  in  Langbian  is 
that  certain  monkeys  of  the  species  known  as  sem- 
nopithecus  never  put  foot  to  ground.  They  are 
supposed  to  progress  by  hanging  on  to  each  other 
and  thus  forming  a living  chain,  one  end  of  which 


KITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


135 


is  attached  to  a tree  overhanging  a stream.  I can 
myself  bear  witness  to  having  frequently  seen  them 
bridge  the  space  between  two  trees  in  this  manner 
and  accomplishing  the  most  astonishing  acrobatic 
feats  on  a trapeze  consisting  of  their  companions. 

Hunting  rites  are  numerous  and  for  the  most 
part  rest  on  the  same  conception  which  we  have 
noticed  before  in  relation  to  other  rites,  namely  the 
belief  in  the  power  of  imitative  or  sympathetic 
magic. 

Thus  a hunter  never  eats  the  flesh  of  the  hare  or 
deer  for  fear  of  becoming  as  timorous  as  these 
creatures.  This  species  of  food  is  only  permitted 
to  old  men,  women  and  children.  If  a wild-boar 
hunt  is  in  prospect  the  hunters  taking  part  must 
abstain  from  fat  and  oil.  Without  this  precaution 
the  animal  would  undoubtedly  slip  through  the 
meshes  of  their  nets  and  escape  its  pursuers.  When 
the  Laotians  slaughter  elephants  for  the  sake  of 
their  ivory  the  women  are  absolutely  forbidden  to 
cut  their  hair  or  nails,  otherwise  the  monsters  would 
infallibly  break  the  stakes  of  the  palisade  in  which 
they  are  entrapped.  So  long  as  an  elephant-hunt 
lasts  the  hunters  may  only  communicate  in  a special 
language  which  has  conventional  terms  for  objects 
of  common  use.  (We  shall  see  later  that  a special 
language  is  also  employed  by  the  Cham  on  their 
annual  expeditions  in  search  of  eagle-wood.) 

Another  regulation  concerns  the  chief  of  the 
hunting-party,  who  may  not  set  foot  to  ground.  If 


136  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

the  necessity  arises  that  he  must  leave  his  elephant 
a carpet  of  leaves  is  spread  beneath  his  feet. 

Whenever  we  killed  an  elephant  the  natives  flung 
themselves  upon  the  victim.  The  first-comer  drank 
its  blood  with  relish  and  the  others  had  to  rest  content 
with  the  great  drops  which  reached  the  ground. 
The  next  step  was  to  cut  off  the  little  triangle  in 
which  the  trunk  terminates.  This  object  is  a much 
prized  amulet.  Next  the  genital  organs  are  severed 
for  the  evening  meal,  and  finally,  as  something  is  due 
to  us  for  presenting  such  booty,  they  offer  us  hairs 
from  the  animal’s  tail  for  toothpicks.  To  be  offered 
these  hairs  is  the  equivalent  of  being  presented  with 
the  brush  in  Europe. 

Another  widespread  superstition  among  the  Moi 
is  that  the  urine  of  savage  dogs  is  able  to  blind  the 
prey  that  they  pursue.  M.  Millet  tells  us  that  in 
the  province  of  Tay-Nhinh  he  saw  wild  dogs  tear 
out  the  eyes  of  a boar,  pin  it  against  a tree  and  rip 
it  in  pieces.  One  of  them  seemed  to  be  told  off  to 
distract  the  victim  during  these  operations,  the  dis- 
traction consisting  of  biting  the  creature’s  head  to 
prevent  it  from  turning  round  and  goring  its  foes 
with  its  tusks.  The  combination  of  ferocity  and 
system  displayed  by  these  wild  dogs  has  always  greatly 
impressed  the  Moi,  who  believe  that  it  is  quite  im- 
possible to  kill  or  capture  them.  We  must  admit  that, 
though  during  our  operations  we  killed  almost  every 
kind  of  wild  animal,  we  never  did  anything  to  shake 
that  belief.  A wild  dog  was  never  in  the  day’s  bag. 


CHAPTER  VII 

RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  {continued) 

Agrarian  rites — How  Me-Sao,  King  of  the  Moi,  opens  the  jar — Rites  of 
initiation  and  “ coming  of  age.” 

^HE  Moi  being  essentially  an  agricultural  people  it 
is  not  difficult, to  believe  that  a large  number 
of  agrarian  rites  enliven  the  monotony  of  their  daily 
life.  We  must  also  remind  ourselves  that  these  rites 
are  generally  based  on  a belief  in  imitative  or  sym- 
pathetic magic.  They  are  seldom  propitiatory  in 
character. 

Thus  before  each  harvest  the  Mnong  plant  bulbous 
or  fibrous-rooted  plants  in  the  corners  of  their  rice  or 
maize  fields  and  water  them  with  spirits.  At  sowing 
time  they  cast  some  of  the  leaves  of  these  plants 
among  the  seed  in  the  hope  of  thus  attracting  the 
Spirit  of  the  grain.  The  ceremony  is  completed 
by  sacrificing  a pig  or  chicken,  and  the  proceedings 
terminate  with  a great  feast.  This  method  of  cele- 
brating sowing-time  with  a feast  was  famous  in 
antiquity.  The  sower  assumes  that  by  filling  his 
own  body  with  food  he  can  stimulate  the  fertility 
of  the  grain.  The  place  and  time  selected  is  the 

137 


138  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

largest  plantation  the  sower  can  find  and  the  season 
of  the  new  moon,  as  if  to  invite  the  harvest  to  coin- 
cide with  the  last  quarter.  If  the  sower  is  a woman 
she  will  let  her  hair  hang  loose,  in  order  that  the  stalk 
of  the  cereal  may,  by  imitation,  be  as  long  as  possible. 
At  harvest  time  she  will  clothe  herself  very  lightly, 
and  the  ball  of  rice,  in  imitation  of  her  slender  form, 
will  be  small,  and  accordingly  of  better  quality. 

Reasoning  along  these  lines  the  savage  often 
believes  that  the  sexual  act  during  seed-time  will 
have  a great  influence  on  the  harvest  to  come.  Some- 
times this  influence  is  considered  beneficent,  and 
accordingly  the  work  of  sowing  is  accompanied  by 
the  most  licentious  orgies.  Sometimes,  on  the  con- 
trary, this  influence  is  regarded  as  baneful,  and 
chastity  is  recommended,  or  even  ordered.  The 
famous  ethnologist  Frazer  considers  that  to  this 
order  of  ideas  must  be  traced  the  rigid  abstinence 
observed  by  Catholics  during  Lent. 

Even  to-day  the  Karens  believe  that  illicit  love 
affairs  bring  a bad  harvest  to  the  guilty  parties. 

In  this  connection  it  is  only  necessary  to  observe 
that  ancient  history  has  much  to  tell  us  of  lascivious 
festivals  in  which  the  laws  of  morality  and  decency 
were  relaxed  almost  to  the  point  of  extinction  during 
the  sowing-time.  The  Saturnalia  of  ancient  Rome, 
taking  their  name  from  Saturn,  the  god  of  agriculture, 
are  an  example  which  occurs  readily  to  the  mind,  and 
modern  equivalents  are  to  be  found  in  certain  half- 
pagan, half-religious  ceremonies  of  eastern  Europe. 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  139 

It  is  also  not  without  a certain  significance  that 
all  these  agrarian  rites,  no  matter  the  group  which 
practise  them,  are  celebrated  in  the  open  air  and 
not  in  a temple,  and  that  their  observance  is  not  the 
function  of  a professional  priestly  class,  but  the  duty 
of  all,  from  the  highest  magnate  to  the  humblest  slave. 

The  Moi  preface  every  religious  ceremony  with 
the  opening  of  a jar  of  spirits  of  rice.  To  omit  this 
prelude  would  be  to  invite  disaster.  In  the  dead 
of  night  the  discordant  voice  of  the  tom-tom  suddenly 
breaks  upon  the  stillness,  and,  as  often  as  not,  its 
message  is  one  of  invitation  to  the  opening  of  a jar. 
We  obeyed  the  summons  at  first  mainly  out  of 
curiosity,  but  finding  the  proceedings  monotonously 
similar,  we  soon  came  to  take  no  further  interest. 
One  of  the  best-known  chiefs,  Me-Sao,  who  enjoyed 
the  title  of  “ King  of  the  Moi,”  had  a grandiloquent 
manner  on  these  occasions  which  is  worthy  of  record. 

His  house,  or  rather  conglomeration  of  huts,  was 
certainly  not  less  than  a hundred  yards  in  length. 
The  stage  was  thus  fully  worthy  of  the  scene  to  be 
presented.  As  the  guests  arrive,  the  host  invites 
them  to  be  seated  on  a row  of  stools,  very  large  but 
so  low  as  to  give  the  impression  of  sitting  on  the 
ground.  A number  of  attendants  immediately  take 
off  the  visitors’  shoes,  anoint  their  feet  with  various 
oils,  after  which  the  guests  rest  their  legs  on  a low, 
iron  railing  fixed  in  the  ground  and  worked  into  a 
rude  pattern.  In  front  of  the  audience  is  a post 
to  which  is  fixed  an  enormous  jar  containing  perhaps 


140 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


twenty-five  to  thirty  litres  of  spirits  of  rice.  A 
Moi  seated  before  the  post  recites  our  praises  in  a 
drawling  voice.  Our  skill  in  the  hunting-field,  our 
physical  strength,  the  efficacy  of  our  medicines  form 
a theme  on  which  the  bard  lets  his  fancy  play  freely. 
When  he  has  recounted  our  individual  virtues, 
another  warrior  imprisons  our  right  wrists  in  a 
thick  copper  bracelet,  an  act  which  signifies  the 
conclusion  of  a compact  and  an  oath  of  blood-brother- 
hood. The  great  jar  is  then  solemnly  decanted 
after  an  invocation  to  the  spirits.  The  King  of 
the  Moi  introduces  a long  hollow  straw  into  the 
liquid,  draws  up  a mouthful,  and  graciously  offers 
the  other  end  to  those  whom  he  deigns  to  honour 
with  his  friendship.  It  would  be  the  height  of  ill- 
breeding  to  decline  this  mark  of  friendship,  and  there 
is  no  alternative  but  submission.  One  by  one  we 
take  a sip  from  the  stalk,  which  is  kept  filled  from  a 
small  drinking-horn  with  a hole  in  the  middle  to 
regulate  the  flow  of  the  liquid.  Those  who  drink 
first  are  the  most  to  be  pitied,  for  the  jar  is  corked 
with  a mixture  of  glazed  earth  and  bran,  and  in  spite 
of  the  cup-bearer’s  skill  some  of  the  solid  matter 
always  gets  into  the  tube.  By  a happy  convention 
there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  guest  from  spitting 
out  his  dose,  in  fact  the  action  is  regarded  as  a high 
compliment  to  the  character  of  the  vintage.  This 
ceremony  frequently  lasts  all  night  to  the  accom- 
paniment of  selections  by  the  band  of  native  musicians 
on  enormous  gongs.  When  the  distinguished 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


141 

strangers  have  been  thus  honoured  the  tribesmen, 
in  order  of  rank,  take  the  tube  in  turn,  and  after 
them  the  women  also,  by  which  time  the  liquid  has 
become  perfectly  innocuous,  thanks  to  its  successive 
dilutions. 

The  offer  of  a jar  to  a guest  of  rank  is  a mark  of 
respect  and  allegiance  in  all  these  parts.  Wherever 
we  went  we  were  always  received  by  the  chiefs  with 
a preliminary  greeting  of  this  kind. 

Spirits  of  rice  consist  of  a mixture  of  paddy  and 
water  which  is  allowed  to  ferment  for  not  less  than 
ten  days  and  not  more  than  three  moons.  Another 
favourite  offering  was  that  of  a white  cock  flanked 
by  an  odd  number  of  eggs  and  served  on  a kind  of 
cane  tray,  of  which  the  bottom  was  sprinkled  with 
a layer  of  snow-white  rice.  In  exchange  for  these 
courtesies  we  returned  presents  of  brass  needles, 
and,  if  our  reception  had  been  particularly  cordial, 
mirrors,  which  the  women  almost  tore  from  our 
hands.  This  exchange  of  presents  was  the  sign  of 
an  alliance  and  was  seldom  followed  by  any  act  of 
treachery.  We  soon  came  to  realize  that  we  had 
little  to  fear  from  groups  who  gave  and  received  these 
hostages. 

Superficial  observers  often  attribute  to  super- 
stitions certain  modern  customs  of  which  the  origin 
is  to  be  sought  in  moral  or  legal  decrees.  Many  of 
these  customs  which  seem  without  significance  become 
quite  intelligible  when  viewed  in  the  light  of  recent 
research  into  the  institutions  and  ways  of  life  of 


142 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


societies  which  have  long  since  disappeared.  In  the 
same  way  our  opinion  will  be  sensibly  modified  by  a 
close  examination  of  the  customs  of  primitive  peoples 
whose  rites  and  ceremonies  we  are  apt  to  attribute 
too  readily  to  abstract  symbolism. 

For  example,  research  into  the  origin  of  the 
practice  of  circumcision  has  brought  some  authorities 
to  the  view  that  this  custom  has  at  some  time  been 
substituted  for  that  of  human  sacrifice  when  the 
victor  offered  the  body  of  the  vanquished  as  a gift 
to  the  gods.  When  David  came  to  Saul  to  demand 
the  hand  of  his  daughter,  the  King  replied  that  the 
only  dowry  he  required  was  a hundred  foreskins  of 
the  Philistines.  In  other  words,  Saul’s  conditions 
were  the  sacrifice  of  a hundred  of  his  enemies,  and 
do  not  seem  to  be  unreasonable  under  the  circum- 
stances. Again  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo  are  not  allowed 
to  take  a wife  until  they  have  at  least  one  scalp  of 
their  foes  to  their  credit.  Later,  by  a prolonged 
process  of  substitution,  circumcision  of  the  boys 
and  excision  of  the  girls  have  taken  their  place  as 
rites  which  mark  the  admission  of  the  young  people 
into  the  full  privileges  and  fellowship  of  the 
community  and  signify  the  passing  of  childhood. 

Most  of  the  groups  which  practise  these  rites  set 
apart  a special  hut  for  the  accommodation  of  the  boys 
and  girls  during  the  celebration.  No  one  is  allowed 
to  enter,  and  the  novices  are  subject  to  a multitude 
of  disciplinary  regulations  which  are  designed  to 
promote  physical  courage  and  endurance,  obedience 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  143 

to  superiors,  and  respect  for  established  tradition. 
Certain  kinds  of  food  are  rigorously  prohibited  during 
this  period  of  seclusion,  which  lasts  until  the  wounds 
made  by  the  operation  are  healed,  an  event  celebrated 
with  great  pomp. 

These  ceremonies  are  only  consistent  with  the 
theory  that  among  certain  races  circumcision  is 
not  a piece  of  pure  symbolism  but  an  act  of  physical 
and  social  initiation.  The  candidate  for  admission 
to  the  full  rights  of  citizenship  must  be  instructed  in 
the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  his  new  status. 
He  must  be  initiated  into  the  traditions  of  his  clan. 
In  nearly  every  case  some  distinctive  feature  of  dress 
or  hair,  or  some  tribal  mark,  such  as  tattooing,  defor- 
mation, or  mutilation  indicates  the  critical  period.  In 
Rome  the  young  man  put  on  the  toga  to  indicate 
his  assumption  of  the  rights  of  manhood. 

It  must  not  be  imagined  that  the  attainment  of 
puberty  in  a physiological  sense  coincides  with 
admission  into  full  membership  of  the  tribe.  It 
is  possible  for  these  events  to  be  separated  by  a long 
period,  though  many  observers  have  fallen  into  error 
in  ignorance  of  the  fact. 

The  Catholics  regard  the  first  communion  as  the 
point  at  which  the  innocence  of  childhood  passes, 
and  manhood,  with  its  burden  of  temptation,  begins. 
Accordingly  the  communicant-to-be  is  prepared  for 
this  ceremony  by  a period  of  initiation,  during  which 
he  makes  a reverent  study  of  the  traditions  of  his 
faith  and  the  articles  of  his  creed. 


144 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


The  Moi,  too,  celebrate  the  attainment  of  puberty 
by  a series  of  rites  and  festivals.  The  period  of 
seclusion  in  a special  house  which  no  one  may  enter 
points  clearly  to  a belief  in  the  necessity  of  a period 
of  initiation,  during  which  the  candidate  prepares 
himself  for  the  new  life. 

The  Moi  also  exhibit  traces  of  usages  regulating 
the  sexual  relation  which  are  of  very  ancient  origin. 
We  have  already  noticed  the  innumerable  prohibi- 
tions obligatory  during  pregnancy.  The  rites  to 
be  observed  during  the  menstrual  period,  and  parti- 
cularly at  the  time  of  the  first  menstruation,  are  no 
less  rigorous  and  complicated.  A woman  must  not 
touch  meat  at  that  period,  and  must  be  particularly 
careful  to  avoid  contact  with  either  of  her  parents. 
The  girls  of  the  Lolo,  a people  on  the  Chinese 
frontier,  as  soon  as  they  have  reached  a marriageable 
age,  are  subjected  to  a vegetarian  diet  and  have 
their  food,  from  which  every  particle  of  meat  and 
fat  is  carefully  excluded,  cooked  in  special  pots. 

On  the  other  hand  the  Moi  seem  to  have  no  special 
rites  to  mark  the  menopause. 

Similar  customs  are  to  be  found  among  most  of 
the  races  in  the  Far  East.  The  Blimyar,  a Dravidian 
people  from  southern  Mirzapore,  reserve  a certain 
part  of  their  houses,  under  the  outer  verandah,  for 
the  women  during  the  menstrual  period.  The 
Parsees  forbid  their  women  to  look  on  flame.  Europe 
itself  is  familiar  with  regulations  of  the  same  type. 
In  the  country  districts  of  France  the  peasants  think 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


HS 


that  the  presence  of  a woman  in  the  condition  in 
question  is  enough  to  turn  the  beer,  convert  the 
wine  into  vinegar  or  even  ruin  a whipped  cream  or 
mayonnaise ! The  belief  seems  to  spring,  like  so 
many  others,  from  the  long  accepted  convention 
that  contact  with  blood  is  a cause  of  impurity. 

Another  very  curious  rite  is  that  which  ethnologists 
have  agreed  to  call  “ avoidance,”  which  means  the 
prohibition  imposed  on  both  parties  to  a marriage 
to  touch,  in  the  case  of  the  husband,  his  mother-in- 
law,  and,  in  the  case  of  the  wife,  her  father-in-law. 
Colonel  Diguet  of  the  Colonial  Infantry  deposes 
that  this  taboo  is  found  also  among  the  Man-Coc 
and  the  Man-Pa-Teng,  tribes  of  mountaineers  near 
Tonkin,  whose  customs  bear  strong  resemblances 
to  those  of  the  Moi.  Speaking  for  myself,  I can 
advance  the  case  no  further,  for  to  all  my  questions 
on  the  subject  the  natives  answered  with  that 
obvious  reticence  which  is  the  sign  of  their  dislike 
to  be  catechized  on  sexual  matters. 

Africa  and  Australia  furnish  many  examples  of 
“ avoidance.”  The  Bovandik  of  South  Australia 
even  have  a special  language  for  conversation  between 
a husband  and  his  wife’s  mother,  or  a wife  and  her 
husband’s  father.  In  Uganda  a son-in-law  may 
not  look  at  his  mother-in-law  and  not  even  speak  to 
her  except  through  a partition  or  carefully  closed 
door.  Madagascar  provides  examples  of  the  separa- 
tion of  the  sexes.  The  Mahafaly  and  the  Sakalava 
build  their  houses  with  two  doors,  one  facing  north 


10 


146  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

for  the  husband  and  another  facing  west  for  the 
wife.  The  woman  may  eat  hot  foods  but  the  man 
may  not.  On  the  other  hand,  the  wife  may  not 
sit  on  the  same  mat  with  her  husband  during  his 
meals.  This  practice  of  eating  apart  is  common 
throughout  the  East.  The  Moi  are  no  exception, 
and  even  carry  it  to  the  length  of  taking  their  meals 
in  groups,  each  group  consisting  of  members  of 
the  same  clan  or  village.  We  had  the  most  bitter 
experience  of  this  custom  and  its  resulting  incon- 
venience during  the  expedition.  It  was  our  practice 
as  a rule  to  have  the  midday  meal  in  the  open  at 
any  place  where  we  happened  to  be  at  the  moment, 
and  the  time  was  naturally  short.  But  however 
short  the  interval,  the  coolies  never  failed  to  waste  the 
larger  part  of  it  in  sorting  themselves  out  into  clans. 

Primitive  peoples  regard  the  fertility  of  their 
women  as  a national  asset,  and  all  kinds  of  rites  are 
celebrated  to  avert  the  crowning  disaster  of  sterility, 
which  is  neither  more  nor  less  than  a public  calamity. 
The  Laotians,  who  cannot  truly  be  described  as 
primitive,  make  family  pilgrimages  to  a temple  in 
which  there  is  a famous  statue,  probably  of  the  goddess 
Kali.  The  figure  is  of  a woman  of  a black  race  stand- 
ing with  a linga  in  her  hand.  Each  day  she  receives 
a large  number  of  visitors,  who  show  their  devotion 
by  sprinkling  her  lips  with  cocoanut  oil  in  the  hope 
of  gaining  her  favour,  and  thereby  assuring  to  them- 
selves a numerous  posterity.  The  walls  of  the  temple 
are  hung  with  votive  offerings,  the  nature  of  which 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


147 


leaves  no  doubt  as  to  the  character  of  the  requests 
made  to  the  divinity.  In  this  connection  it  may 
be  mentioned  that  a similar  practice  obtains  in 
certain  villages  of  the  Italian  Tyrol,  Bavaria,  and 
Rhenish  Prussia,  where  the  traveller  will  find  the 
votive  offerings,  consisting  of  a spiked  ball,  a symbol 
of  the  matrix,  directed  to  the  same  end. 

In  lands  less  enlightened,  where  sculpture  is  but 
in  its  infancy,  this  act  of  devotion  is  replaced  by  a 
ceremony  enacted  by  the  Sorcerer.  The  Tho,  for 
example,  make  a small  model  bridge  of  bamboo  and  I 
place  it  near  the  house  of  the  childless  family.  The  * 
bridge  is  a standing  invitation  to  the  Spirit  of  Fer- 
tility to  enter  the  house  and  accept  the  hospitality 
of  the  inmates,  rewarding  them  by  granting  their 
request. 

Among  other  tribes  the  Sorcerer  makes  a small  | 
ure  of  the  barren  woman  and  adjures  it  to  submit 
to  the  yoke  of  maternity.  It  will  be  remembered  j 
that  the  rite  of  envoutement  (casting  a spell  on  a 
person  by  transfixing  an  image  of  him)  is  based  on 
sympathetic  magic,  so  that  it  is  essential  that  the 
operator  should  possess  some  portion  of  the  person 
on  whose  behalf  the  ceremony  is  performed.  A 
piece  of  hair,  some  nail-parings,  or,  best  of  all,  some 
of  the  menstrual  blood,  are  most  commonly  used  on 
, these  occasions.  This  rite  is  practised  by  almost 
all  savage  tribes,  but  generally  with  a view  to  accom- 
plishing the  destruction  of  the  original  of  the  model 
rather  than  obtaining  favours  for  him. 

10* 


148  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

Among  the  Moi  certain  plants  which  they  call 
“ Begand  ” are  endowed  with  magical  properties, 
malevolent  or  otherwise.  All  these  roots  belong  to 
the  family  of  the  Zingiberacae,  Sometimes  all 
that  is  required  of  the  sick  man  is  to  rub  himself 
with  the  herb.  The  spirit  which  has  caused  his  illness 
will  then  acknowledge  the  efficacy  of  the  treatment 
and  withdraw.  Sometimes,  on  the  contrary,  a single 
leaf  mixed  with  food  is  quite  sufficient  to  cause  a 
mortal  disease.  When  mixed  with  tobacco  the 
“ Begand  ” acts  either  as  a love  philter  or  as  a means 
of  procuring  an  abortion.  Among  other  tribes  the 
species  is  known  as  “ Magan,”  and  the  Sorcerer  alone 
is  allowed  to  cultivate  it,  since  it  forms  one  of  the 
principal  ingredients  in  the  small  figures  of  friends 
or  enemies  which  play  so  large  a part  in  magical 
ceremonies.  This  rhizome  is  also  reputed  to  have  a 
powerful  effect  upon  animals,  and  a few  leaves  are 
invariably  placed  in  traps  and  nets  to  ensure  a 
successful  catch. 

The  missionary  Father  Durand,  who  laboured  for 
years  among  the  Moi,  says  that  the  Magan  is 
worshipped  as  if  it  were  a god,  and  confirms  the  view 
that  it  possesses  valuable  therapeutic  properties. 

While  on  this  subject  it  is  interesting  to  recall 
that  all  the  research  of  modern  travellers  has  so  far 
failed  to  discover  the  plant  which  furnished  “ Soma  ” 
to  the  Vedic  tribes  and  “ Horn  ” to  the  Iranians.  If 
this  discovery  is  ever  made  it  will  set  at  rest  any 
doubts  which  may  exist  as  to  the  original  seat  of  the 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


149 


most  ancient  religion  of  the  Indo-Iranian  race.  The 
only  Soma  of  which  we  know  anything  is  that  of 
the  Brahmins,  and  this,  indeed,  differs  in  vital  respects 
from  the  sacred  beverage  celebrated  in  the  Hymns, 
for,  instead  of  producing  inebriation,  it  seems  to  have 
acted  as  an  emetic.  The  “ Horn  ” of  the  Kirman 
Parsees,  or  rather  the  “ Nireng,  ” which  is  a mixture 
of  “ Horn  ” and  cows’  urine,  likewise  possesses  the 
properties  of  an  emetic.  This  is  perhaps  merely  a 
coincidence  of  the  kind  which  is  frequently  observed 
among  different  groups  among  whom  religion  is  little 
more  than  sorcery. 

It  has  always  been  my  regret  that  I never  had  an 
opportunity  of  witnessing  the  ceremony  of  envoUte- 
ment.  M.  Millet,  however,  of  the  Woods  and  Forests 
Department  of  Indo-China,  saw  it  more  than  once 
and  gave  me  the  following  graphic  account. 

A Moi  who  has  some  cause  of  complaint  against 
one  of  his  fellow  tribesmen  observes  his  tracks  and 
follows  him  until  he  reaches  the  spot  where  his  enemy 
has  relieved  himself.  He  marks  the  place  with  a 
short  bamboo  inserted  in  the  ground.  A short  time 
after,  perhaps,  his  enemy  falls  ill,  and  then  he  visits 
the  place  at  frequent  intervals  and  either  thrusts  the 
bamboo  deeper  into  the  ground  or  else  draws  it  out, 
according  to  his  desire  to  aggravate  or  diminish  the 
malady. 

It  may  be,  of  course,  a pure  coincidence  that  the 
illness  follows  the  ceremony  I have  related,  but  it  is 
at  least  open  to  conjecture  that  the  victim  hears  of 


150  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

what  has  been  done  and  fear  of  coming  vengeance 
unnerves  him  and  produces  the  evil  physical  effects 
he  expects.  Everyone  knows  how  human  beings, 
especially  highly  strung  and  nervous  human  beings, 
can  make  themselves  ill  by  anticipating  an  evil  which 
they  dread. 

M.  Millet  was  also  responsible  for  the  following 
account  of  an  hallucination  of  which  he  was  the  victim, 
and  as  he  is  a gentleman  of  unimpeachable  veracity, 
and  neither  weak  nor  superstitious,  I see  no  reason  to 
hesitate  in  accepting  his  statements. 

“ I was  stationed  at  Djiring  in  Annam  and  the 
night  in  question  was  dark  and  rainy.  I was  sleeping 
in  a hut  of  straw  which,  by  exception  in  these  tiger- 
stricken  regions,  was  not  raised  on  piles.  About 
midnight  I was  awakened  by  the  sound  of  a prowling 
tiger,  a sound  which  left  no  doubt  of  its  origin.  It  is 
quite  impossible  to  mistake  the  short  ‘ cop-cop,’ 
the  tiger’s  hunting  signal,  as  recognizable  as  that  of 
a motor-horn.  I got  up,  seized  my  rifle  and  pre- 
pared for  the  intruder.  The  walls  of  the  hut  were 
made  of  a network  of  palm  leaves  and  so  flimsy  that 
the  beast  could  have  burst  through  at  a bound.  I 
waited  in  silence  and  in  a few  seconds  heard  a noise 
as  of  a heavy  body  falling,  followed  by  the  piercing 
cry  of  the  victim,  a young  fawn,  I surmised.  The 
tiger  growled  and  then  gave  vent  to  its  feelings  cf 
satisfaction  in  a series  of  curious  mewings.  I went 
out,  and  though  it  was  too  dark  to  see  more  than  a 
yard  ahead  of  me  I made  for  the  spot  from  which  the 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  15 1 

sound  proceeded  and  fired  point  blank.  There  was 
an  unmistakable  sound  of  a huge  creature  springing 
up  and  bounding  away,  then  silence. 

“At  daybreak  I searched  the  neighbourhood  for 
footprints  and  traces  of  the  struggle.  The  ground 
was  of  clay  and  had  been  soaked  by  the  rain.  It  was 
bound  to  reveal  marks  of  the  presence  of  any  animal, 
however  light.  To  my  amazement  the  only  foot- 
prints visible  were  those  I had  made  myself ! I 
repeat  that  I could  not  possibly  have  mistaken  the 
sounds  I had  heard,  for  I had  distinguished  even  the 
noise  made  by  a large  animal  passing  through  the 
bushes. 

“ The  explanation  of  my  Moi  attendants  to  whom 
I related  this  adventure  was  very  simple  and  plausible. 
The  Spirits  were  responsible  for  the  trick  played  on 
me!” 

Colonel  Diguet  relates  a case  of  indirect  envoiite- 
ment  which  he  observed  among  the  Man. 

If  a native  has  a serious  complaint  against  another 
he  commits  the  cause  of  action  to  paper,  or  rather 
the  native  equivalent  of  paper,  along  with  the  name 
of  the  accused  and  his  village.  He  then  rolls  this 
up  into  a ball  and  thrusts  it  down  the  mouth  of  a 
goat,  which  he  afterwards  suspends  by  bands  from  the 
branches  of  a tree.  He  then  beats  the  unfortunate 
creature  with  a cane,  not  without  many  apologies 
for  the  evil  treatment  which  circumstances  compel 
him  to  mete  out.  One  by  one  he  recites  to  the 
animal  the  matters  of  which  he  complains  and  begs 


152 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


it  to  plead  his  cause  with  the  Spirits.  To  ensure  a 
proper  zeal  on  the  part  of  the  advocate  he  enumerates 
a series  of  torments  which  await  it  in  the  next 
world  should  it  fail  in  its  mission.  He  then  departs 
in  the  sure  and  certain  hope  that  his  prayers,  and 
especially  his  threats,  will , have  the  desired  effect. 
The  unhappy  goat  is  then  left  to  die  of  starvation. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  from  the  most  ancient 
times  the  ceremony  which  has  for  its  object  the 
expulsion  of  a disease  from  an  individual,  or  the 
transference  of  that  disease  from  his  body  to  that 
of  another,  is  effected  by  means  of  an  intermediary, 
generally  a goat,  which  has  come  to  be  known  as  the 
“ scapegoat  ” by  reason  of  the  part  it  plays  on  these 
occasions.  He  who  performs  the  ceremony  is 
supposed  to  have  lodged  in  the  body  of  the  animal 
the  evil  thing  which  he  wishes  to  expel  or  transfer. 
The  comparison  of  this  practice  which,  as  I have  said, 
dates  from  a remote  antiquity,  with  the  curious 
proceedings  among  the  Man  of  which  Colonel  Diguet 
speaks  is  thus  very  striking. 

The  practice  of  direct  envoiitement  is  also  met 
with  among  the  Man.  It  takes  the  form  of  making 
an  image  in  rice-paper  of  your  enemy  and  piercing 
it  with  arrows  or  spears. 

Something  very  similar  was  practised  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  for  there  is  hardly  a museum  of  archaeology  or 
ethnography  which  has  no  show-case  of  small  figures 
transfixed  with  nails,  especially  in  the  region  of  the 
heart. 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


153 


The  museum  of  Tervueren  in  Belgium  is  peculiarly 
rich  in  specimens  of  this  kind,  most  of  which  were 
collected  by  the  ethnographical  expedition  sent 
out  from  England  to  the  Congo  in  1907,  under 
the  direction  of  Mr.  E.  Torday,  of  the  Anthro- 
pological Institute  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
The  method  of  investigation  followed  by  the  ex- 
plorers is  worthy  of  note,  for  the  leader,  thanks  to  his 
unrivalled  knowledge  of  the  dialects,  was  enabled  to 
dispense  with  the  services  of  an  interpreter.  The 
information  which  the  natives  willingly  supplied  as 
to  their  rites  and  superstitions  has  thus  come  to  us 
unadulterated  by  translation,  since  it  was  immediately 
transmitted  to  Mr.  T.  A.  Joyce,  the  Honorary 
Secretary  of  the  Institute  in  England,  who  forwarded 
a series  of  supplementary  questions  to  Mr.  Torday 
when  a point  seemed  to  require  further  elucidation. 
Mr.  M.  W.  Hilton  Simpson,  and  the  artist,  Norman 
H.  Hardy,  were  also  members  of  this  mission,  of  which 
the  results  were  such  as  to  deserve  special  mention. 

The  expulsion  or  transference  of  evil  spirits  is  not 
always  effected  by  indirect  means  such  as  that  of 
the  scapegoat.  In  the  majority  of  cases  the  method 
followed  is  the  direct  one  of  exorcism.  The  rites 
of  exorcism  vary  greatly  according  to  the  beliefs  and 
traditions  of  the  different  tribes.  It  is  generally 
accompanied  by  flagellation,  which  has  for  its  object 
to  purify  the  voluntary  victim  from  the  stain  of  sin. 
The  Spirit  which  torments  him,  finding  that  the 
repeated  blows  make  his  habitation  untenantable. 


154  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

resolves  to  evacuate  the  place.  It  is  plain  that  this 
is  the  true  and  original  purpose  of  this  chastisement 
and  that  the  idea  of  purification  by  pain  only  crept 
in  later. 

Like  all  peoples  in  an  early  stage  of  civilization  the 
Moi  attribute  disease  and  even  death  not  to  any 
natural  cause  but  to  the  presence  of  malevolent 
spirits,  the  “ Pi.”  All  efforts  must  then  be  con- 
centrated on  persuading  the  harmful  intruder  to 
depart,  if  not  by  bribes  then  by  threats.  If  the  ill- 
ness seems  likely  to  terminate  fatally,  the  Sorceress 
is  called  on  to  expel  the  evil  spirit  by  incantations 
and  sacrifices.  This  ceremony  has  many  features 
of  note,  and  I witnessed  it  on  several  occasions  in  spite 
of  the  inveterate  reluctance  of  the  Moi  to  allow  us 
to  take  any  part  in  their  public  life. 

The  Sorceress  is  a priestess  who  enters  the  house 
of  the  dying  person  clad  only  in  a full,  white  loin- 
cloth. A rough  plank  serves  for  an  altar  and  on  it 
she  places  a bowl  of  rice  and  six  small  candles,  which 
she  lights.  Then  to  the  accompaniment  of  a series 
of  peculiar  writhing  movements  she  chants  a litany, 
which  gets  quicker  and  quicker  as  the  candles  get 
smaller.  Her  contortions  also  become  more  rapid 
and  violent  and  in  the  end  she  is  seized  with  a fit 
of  hysterics,  which  signifies  the  frantic  struggles  of 
the  “ Pi  ” before  they  yield  to  the  power  of  the 
incantation.  All  at  once  her  movements  cease  and 
she  commences  to  indicate  the  hour  in  which  the 
cure  will  take  place.  This  is  done  after  consultation 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


155 


with  the  Spirits,  during  which  she  takes  the  rice 
out  of  the  bowl  at  the  rate  of  three  grains  at  a time. 
Then  she  takes  a mouthful  of  water,  which  she  returns 
over  the  patient’s  body  in  driblets  while  she  presses 
his  stomach  as  if  she  were  attempting  to  squeeze  the 
life  out  of  something.  Just  as  the  last  of  the  candles 
is  on  the  point  of  going  out  she  utters  a cry  of 
triumph  and  holds  up  a stone  of  about  the  size  of  a 
nut  before  the  eyes  of  her  astonished  and  admiring 
audience. 

The  cause  of  the  malady  has  gone  ! The  “ Pi  ” 
have  departed,  leaving  this  trophy  of  victory  to  the 
conqueror  who  seems  so  exhausted  by  her  efforts 
that  several  gourds  of  spirits  of  rice  are  necessary  to 
restore  her  strength. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  patient  takes  a 
good  turn  after  this  ceremony,  either  as  a reward  for 
faith  or  else  by  pure  coincidence.  But  if  the  reverse 
occurs  and  the  patient  dies  shortly  after  the  exorcism, 
the  unfortunate  result  is  attributed  solely  to  the 
parsimony  and  ingratitude  of  the  deceased,  whose 
offerings  were  not  deemed  sufficient  by  the  Spirits. 

As  I have  said,  the  method  of  exorcism  varies  with 
different  groups.  For  instance,  it  takes  the  following 
form  among  the  Tho  of  Tonkin.  The  priest  addresses 
himself  to  the  Chicken  Devil  who  is  in  possession  of 
the  patient,  first  inviting  him  to  take  the  food  which 
has  been  prepared  for  him  and  extending  the  invita- 
tion to  all  the  Chicken  Devils  of  the  five  cardinal 
points.  (Throughout  the  Far  East  the  centre  of  the 


156  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

earth  is  regarded  as  a fifth  cardinal  point.)  He  then 
throws  two  coins  into  a cup  of  rice  and  calls  on  the 
Male  Element  and  the  Female  Element  to  make 
the  first  come  up  heads  and  the  second  tails.  Whether 
the  operation  succeeds  or  not  the  Sorcerer  then  lights 
several  sticks  of  eaglewood,  pours  some  spirits  of  rice 
into  a cup,  and  addresses  all  the  Chicken  Devils  in  the 
following  words  : 

“ I beg  to  inform  you  that  the  patient  I am  about 
to  cure  has  been  brought  to  his  present  condition  by 
the  malevolent  intervention  of  one  of  your  number. 
I adjure  you  to  command  your  brother  to  leave  the 
place  and  torment  my  patient  no  longer.  Let  each 
of  you  return  to  the  cardinal  point  from  which  he 
came  ; otherwise  you  shall  not  partake  of  the  feast 
which  we  have  spread  for  you.  . . .” 

The  Chicken  Demons,  however,  are  slow  to  take 
the  hint,  for  the  patient’s  condition  shows  no  sign 
of  improvement.  The  spokesman  betrays  no  sign 
of  annoyance  at  this  obstinacy,  but  his  tone  changes 
from  one  of  studious  moderation  and  politeness  to 
one  of  command. 

He  continues  : 

“ I am  an  intimate  friend  of  the  Emperor  of  Jade 
and  on  the  best  of  terms  with  Lao-Quan.  It  is  they 
who  speak  by  my  mouth,  and  at  your  peril  you  refuse 
to  obey-  the  behests  of  these  holy  and  powerful 
persons.” 

His  speech  now  becomes  more  rapid  and  his 
gestures  more  agitated. 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


157 


“ I hear  the  approach  of  the  four  sacred  animals, 
the  Dragon,  the  Unicorn,  the  Phoenix,  and  the 
Tortoise.  ...  I hear  the  voices  of  the  fearful  Spirits 
they  are  bringing  to  fight  you,  I see  the  armed 
warriors  that  - escort  them.  . . . Fly  ! . . . Fly 
quickly,  lest  they  slay  you  for  your  obstinacy  ! . . .” 

By  this  time  the  speechmaker  is  quite  out  of 
breath  and  can  do  no  more  than  ring  his  bells,  while 
his  companions  rouse  the  whole  neighbourhood  with 
their  gongs  and  tom-toms.  This  ear-shattering 
symphony  is  intended  to  imitate  the  titanic  contest 
which  now  takes  place  between  the  Chicken  Devils 
and  the  sacred  animals,  who  finally  rout  their  enemies 
and  drive  them  away  in  confusion. 

In  Babylon  also,  exorcism  was  practised  in  cases 
of  illness,  which  was  invariably  attributed  to  the 
flight  of  the  soul  and  the  possession  of  the  body  by  a 
demon.  The  first  step  was  to  interrogate  the  patient 
so  that  the  priest  should  know  for  what  reason  his 
soul  had  abandoned  him.  The  patient  related  all  his 
acts  and  the  priest  enumerated  all  the  sins  he  might 
have  committed.  The  list  of  sins  is  interesting  to 
anyone  familiar  with  ancient  civilizations. 

There  were  the  usual  transgressions  against  one- 
self and  one’s  neighbour,  adultery,  murder,  theft, 
injustice,  but  there  were  also  sins  against  the  code 
of  commercial  morality.  To  judge  by  the  number 
of  these  last,  offences  against  good  faith  such  as  the 
use  of  fraudulent  balances  and  false’  money  were 
extremely  common. 


iS8  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

Analogous  lists  of  forbidden  sins  have  been  found 
in  some  of  the  Egyptian  tombs. 

It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  divinities  of  primitive 
groups  are  thought  to  punish  only  those  crimes  which 
touch  their  own  dignity  and  worship.  They  take 
no  account  of  offences  which  cause  no  loss  to  them- 
selves. When  the  group  advances  along  the  path 
of  progress  we  find  that  their  gods  are  supposed  to 
be  angry  at  any  act  which  may  be  prejudicial  to  the 
interests  of  the  whole  community.  We  also  find  that 
their  vengeance  consists  of  withdrawing  their  magic 
protection  from  the  delinquent.  It  seems  plain, 
therefore,  that  in  the  earlier  period  religion  is  con- 
sidered as  a thing  apart  from  morals,  while  in  the 
later  the  two  conceptions  blend  and  intermingle. 
This  would  certainly  support  the  theory  that  law 
has  grown  up  from  ancient  prohibitions  which  in 
origin  were  no  more  than  ritual. 

The  apparatus  of  the  Moi  sorcerers  and  sorceresses 
is  simple  and  scanty.  No  special  clothing  is  worn, 
consisting  as  it  does  of  bands  of  coarse  cloth,  perhaps 
two  inches  wide,  which  they  strap  over  their  shoulders 
and  about  their  loins  much  like  rustic  braces.  The 
mountaineers  of  Tonkin,  whose  rites  are  more  com- 
plicated, have  more  elaborate  ceremonies. 

Among  the  Man-Tien,  for  example,  the  sorcerer- 
priests  wear  a most  remarkable  costume  when  they 
perform  their  sacerdotal  functions.  It  consists  of 
an  apron  of  unbleached  cloth,  a kind  of  embroidered 
bandolier,  and  a head-dress  resembling  the  helmet 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  js9 

of  a French  cuirassier  and  made  of  a framework  of 
bamboo  covered  with  a piece  of  cloth  dyed  indigo 
blue. 

The  accessories  to  ritual  ceremonies  are  generally 
the  following  : 

A short  cane  of  wood  with  a veneer  of  red  lacquer 
and  prismatic  in  shape. 

A sword  made  of  coins  threaded  together  in  such 
a way  as  to  cause  a jangle  whenever  it  is  moved. 

Some  seals  to  resemble  those  which  are  found  on 
the  books  of  magic  to  demonstrate  their  authenticity 
in  the  next  world. 

A number  of  images  on  cloth  or  paper  with  which 
the  Sorcerer  adorns  the  house  of  the  person  who  has 
invited  his  assistance. 

In  every  place  and  among  all  tribes  no  ceremony 
takes  place  without  the  harsh  discord  of  incidental 
music  made  by  gongs,  tom-toms  and  cymbals. 

It  would  not  be  fair  to  leave  this  topic  without 
paying  my  tribute  to  the  extreme  fervour  and  con- 
viction which  are  displayed  by  all  who  take  part 
in  these  ceremonies.  On  the  various  occasions  on 
which  I was  a witness  I was  always  impressed  with 
the  fact  that  a belief  based  on  faith  only  is 
entitled  to  respect,  and  I hesitate  to  regard 
as  mere  superstition  anything  which  seems  incom- 
prehensible to  me.  Even  in  Brittany  there  are 
many  sanctuaries  where  rites  are  practised  which 
have  in  view  the  expulsion  of  evil,  and  Doctor  Hebert 
has  made  a detailed  report  of  an  occurrence,  one  of 


i6o  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

thousands,  which  took  place  at  the  celebrated  sanc- 
tuary of  Saint  Goulien  at  the  Point  du  Raz.  Here 
believers  resort  in  immense  numbers  in  the  belief 
that  they  can  obtain  a cure  for  neuralgia  by  having 
the  little  bell  (which  was  used  by  the  saint  to  summon 
the  catechumens)  placed  on  their  heads  by  the 
sacristan,  who  then  rings  it  furiously.  The  sound 
of  this  bell  is  supposed  to  drive  away  the  malady  and 
restore  the  patient  to  health.  If  the  desired  effect 
is  not  produced,  the  failure  is  attributed  to  the  pil- 
grim’s want  of  faith  or  else  to  the  sins  which  still 
hamper  his  soul.  He  must  therefore  purify  himself 
and  entrust  his  recovery  to  one  of  the  innumerable 
saints  whose  sanctuaries  are  scattered  throughout 
this  region.  At  the  worst  he  has  had  a pleasant 
tour  in  one  of  the  most  curious  and  interesting  parts 
of  France,  an  event  which  contains  in  itself  some 
elements  of  a cure. 


The  Festival  of  the  Dead  : Carrying  Home  the  Sacrificial  Bufifaf 


The  Festival  of  the  Dead  : Poles  erected  for  the  Celebration. 


[To  lace  p,  i6i 


I 


CHAPTER  VIII 

BELIEFS  AND  RITES  (continued) 

The  origin  and  observance  of  funeral  rites — The  ceremony  of  the  Com- 
memoration of  the  Dead — Burial  rites  and  various  methods. 

A"'"  students  of  primitive  man  have  observed 
that  egoism  is  one  of  his  most  prominent 
characteristics.  Hence  it  is  not  difficult  to  believe 
that  the  extravagant  attention  he  pays  to  the  dead 
is  due  not  so  much  to  any  sentiment  of  reverence 
as  to  the  necessity  of  looking  after  his  own  interests. 

Among  primitive  races  the  general  idea  is  that 
after  death  man  has  exactly  the  same  feelings  and 
necessities  as  during  life.  Accordingly,  his  spirit 
will  have  to  seek  food  for  itself  if  the  living  fail  to 
provide  it,  and  this  will  always  be  the  case  where  the 
deceased  has  been  buried  without  the  proper  funeral 
rites.  The  dead  man  must  then  take  by  force  what  has 
been  denied  him.  In  this  way  many  common  thefts 
are  accounted  for.  The  loss  to  the  owner  is  a vivid 
reminder  that  he  has  been  neglecting  his  duties 
and  a warning  that  further  disaster  will  overtake 
him  unless  he  mends  his  ways  for  the  future.  The 
fact  is  that  the  spirit  has  not  yet  been  received  into 

i6i 


II 


i62 


BELIEFS  AND  RITES 


the  society  of  the  dead  because  the  deceased  has 
not  yet  been  officially  buried,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
he  has  ceased  to  belong  to  the  company  of  the  living. 
In  this  painful  and  anomalous  position  he  conceives 
a great  hatred  of  those  who  are  responsible  for  it 
and  wages  war  on  them. 

The  folklore  of  all  countries  shows  -traces  of  this 
belief.  In  every  country  the  most  fearsome  ghosts 
are  the  spirits  of  those  who  have  died  a violent  death, 
for  example  by  fire  or  drowning. 

At  a later  stage,  fear  of  the  vengeance  of  the  dead 
is  a less  powerful  motive  to  the  living  than  the  hope 
of  obtaining  favours  from  those  who  regard  their 
late  companions  with  a feeling  of  gratitude,  a feeling 
which  the  departed  spirit  manifests  by  granting  his 
protection  to  the  living  and  interceding  for  them 
with  the  gods. 

In  Egypt  the  development  of  this  last  idea  coincides 
with  the  inception  of  the  practice  of  building  the 
immense  tombs  in  which  we  find  innumerable 
inscriptions  detailing  the  end  in  view. 

“ He  who  guards  and  cherishes  my  double  shall 
find  favour  in  the  sight  of  the  Great  God,  and  shall 
become  a liegeman.  He  shall  not  die  save  in  the 
plenitude  of  years.”  (Dehasheh,  Fifth  Dynasty.) 

From  that  time  forward  the  living  believed  that 
material  prosperity  on  earth  was  a reward  for  their 
devotion  to  the  departed,  and  they  spared  no  pains 
to  make  them  as  comfortable  as  possible  in  the  life 
beyond.  We  have  abundant  proof  of  this  in  the 


BELIEFS  AND  RITES  163 

objects  found  in  the  tombs.  Nothing  that  could 
conduce  to  the  weU-being  of  the  deceased  has  been 
omitted.  He  was  supplied  not  only  with  all  the 
luxuries  to  which  he  was  accustomed  in  life,  but 
also  with  companions  of  both  sexes,  attendants,  slaves, 
and  even  women  of  the  harem.  As  these  persons 
were  unable  to  enter  the  abode  of  the  Spirits,  they 
were  ruthlessly  sacrificed  in  order  that  their  double 
might  rejoin  their  master  and  be  at  his  service  in 
the  new  existence.  This  idea  of  the  necessity  of  a 
change  of  state  before  entering  the  spirit  world 
was  so  fundamental  that  even  the  domestic  utensils 
destined  to  the  service  of  the  deceased  were  broken 
to  signify  a symbolic  death. 

In  Egypt  also,  as  in  many  other  countries  at  a 
similar  stage  of  development,  we  find  the  practice 
of  offering  up  sacrifices  of  animals  and  fruits  which 
were  intended  as  nourishment  for  the  dead.  By 
degrees  the  sacrifice  is  replaced  by  a symbol,  and 
finally  gives  way  to  the  mere  recital  of  a set  formula, 
which  is  considered  to  have  as  much  validity  as  the 
original  ceremony.  This  seems  obvious  from  the 
fact  that  at  this  later  period  a word  or  a look  was 
reputed  to  have  special  magic  powers.  Thus  eyes 
are  painted  on  the  sides  of  the  coffins  to  ward  off 
malevolent  spirits,  and  even  to-day  no  Chinese 
junk  that  sails  the  seas  is  without  an  enormous  eye 
painted  on  each  side  of  the  prow  to  protect  it  from 
the  attack  of  the  Dragon. 

There  are  some  names  which  no  man  may  utter, 

II* 


BELIEFS  AND  RITES 


164 

such  is  the  magical  power  attributed  to  them.  In 
Egypt,  for  example,  even  the  gods  themselves 
refrained  from  pronouncing  the  dread  words  “ Ra  ” 
or  “ Osiris.” 

Our  knowledge  of  ancestor-worship  in  Egypt  is 
singularly  full,  thanks  to  a century  of  archaeological 
research,  and  we  should  be  fortunate  if  even  half 
the  efforts  had  been  expended  on  investigating  the 
same  phenomenon  in  the  Far  East.  In  the  cir- 
cumstances it  is  impossible  to  advance  any  conclusions 
as  final,  though  it  is  certain  that  ancestor-worship 
throughout  the  Far  East  plays  a part,  the  importance 
of  which  it  is  difficult  to  overestimate.  Indeed,  it 
is  not  too  much  to  say  that  in  all  probability  it  has 
been  the  basis  of  most  of  the  religions  to  be  met 
with  in  this  region.  At  the  moment  ethnologists 
are  in  doubt  as  to  the  exact  nature  and  extent  of 
the  native  belief  in  the  physical  needs  of  the  dead. 
They  have  not  even  settled  on  the  precise  location 
of  the  spirit  world,  nor  on  the  amount  of  influence 
exercised  by  the  dead  over  the  acts  of  the  living.  It 
has  been  established  beyond  dispute,  however,  that 
certain  funeral  rites  in  the  Far  East  are  based  upon 
the  same  conceptions  as  those  we  have  seen  obtaining 
in  the  West. 

Thus,  for  example,  we  find  food  and  domestic 
utensils  left  in  the  tombs  for  the  use  of  the  deceased, 
and  the  same  fear  of  being  deprived  of  proper  burial. 
What  further  proof  could  be  required  that  man  is 
regarded  as  possessing  a double  personality  and  that 


BELIEFS  AND  RITES  165 

the  soul  is  not  deprived  of  physical  needs  by  its 
separation  from  the  body  ? 

Even  in  the  details  of  the  burial  ceremonies 
in  Indo-China  we  find  striking  resemblances  to 
those  with  which  we  are  familiar  in  civilizations  now 
vanished.  The  sacrifice  made  in  honour  of  the 
deceased,  and  obviously  with  the  end  of  furnishing 
him  with  the  means  of  existence  in  his  new  life,  is 
still  observed  by  the  Moi  in  a manner  almost  iden- 
tical with  that  which  prevailed  in  the  land  of  the 
Pharaohs. 

The  Egyptian  sacrifice  was  attended  by  the 
following  circumstances. 

The  animal  was  first  caught  with  the  lasso,  a 
method  which  does  not  imply  that  it  was  wild,  for 
at  that  period  the  herds  were  allowed  to  roam  at 
large,  and  even  domestic  animals  had  to  be  taken 
in  this  fashion.  The  victim  was  secured  by  an 
approved  method  and  its  carotid  artery  severed, 
invariably  in  the  same  manner  and  with  the  same 
instrument.  The  blood  which  flowed  from  the 
wound  was  carefully  collected  in  a jar  which  an 
assistant  then  handed  to  the  “ Sounou  ” (doctor) 
with  these  words  ; 

“ Taste  this  blood.” 

The  Sounou  wetted  his  lips  with  it  and  answered  : 

“ It  is  pure.” 

This  tasting  of  the  blood  was  necessary  to  demon- 
strate that  the  beast  had  been  well  chosen.  Finally 
the  animal  was  cut  in  pieces,  beginning  at  the  thigh. 


BELIEFS  AND  RITES 


i66 

which  was  considered  the  choicest  part,  and  to  crown 
the  occasion  its  lungs  and  intestines  were  removed. 

I myself  can  bear  witness,  after  seeing  many  similar 
ceremonies  observed  by  the  Moi  during  their  festival 
of  the  Commemoration  of  the  Dead,  that  the  proceed- 
ings show  no  substantial  variation  from  those  I have 
just  recounted.  The  fifty  centuries  which  have 
intervened  might  as  well  be  fifty  days,  so  perfect 
is  the  resemblance. 

All  religions  afford  many  illustrations  of  the 
ability  of  certain  rites  to  defy  the  hand  of  time. 
Among  the  ethnographical  collections  in  the  British 
Museum  are  a large  number  of  instruments  of  stone 
used  for  the  purpose  of  sacrifice  by  peoples  who  had 
long  since  abandoned  stone  as  a material  for  all  other 
weapons. 

The  great  festival  of  the  Commemoration  of  the 
Dead  is  celebrated  by  the  Moi  in  June  of  every  year, 
in  a manner  which  varies  little  in  the  different  tribes. 
I was  always  invited  on  these  occasions  and  never 
failed  to  attend,  for  the  occasion  is  one  of  the  highest 
interest. 

The  previous  eight  days  are  spent  by  the  women 
and  children  in  collecting  bamboos  on  which  to 
hang  garlands  of  leaves  and  flowers.  At  intervals 
tall  poles  are  erected  from  which  various  trophies 
are  suspended,  and  the  whole  village  exchanges  its 
usual  dirt  and  squalor  for  an  appearance  of  irrespon- 
sible gaiety.  The  thatched  roofs  of  the  huts  are 
the  only  sombre  note  in  the  variegated  colour- 


BELIEFS  AND  RITES 


167 

scheme.  The  small  canals  which  intersect  the  plain 
seem  to  be  engaged  in  a perpetual  chase  and  in  the 
distance  the  lofty  Annamite  chain  rears  its  proud 
head  as  if  to  shut  off  this  smiling  land  from  the 
rest  of  the  world. 

As  soon  as  the  day  breaks  every  family  rises  and 
proceeds  in  Indian  file  along  the  high  banks  guarding 
the  ricefields  to  the  family  tomb,  where  the  loved 
dead  are  resting.  The  sepulchre  is  a small  building 
not  unlike  a hut  from  a distance,  but  distinguished 
from  it  by  the  line  of  the  roof,  which  is  curved  instead 
of  straight,  a peculiarity  which  produces  the  form  of 
a pagoda.  The  relatives  renew  the  thatch  of  the 
tomb  where  necessary,  sweep  the  floor  with  the 
most  elaborate  care  and  replenish  the  store  of  victuals 
with  fresh  supplies.  A few  prayers  are  uttered  and 
then  they  continue  in  silence  to  the  place  of  sacrifice. 
This  is  a vast  clearing  on  which  several  lofty  poles 
have  been  erected.  Securely  tied  to  the  foot  of 
each  pole  is  a young  buffalo,  selected  by  the  warriors 
from  the  tribal  herd.  The  number  of  victims  to  be 
sacrificed  is  determined  by  the  number  of  males 
who  have  died  in  the  previous  year,  the  loss  of  females 
being  reckoned,  with  true  oriental  gallantry,  as  a 
matter  of  no  moment. 

The  moment  the  sun  appears  from  behind  the 
curtain  of  mountains  four  assistants  drag  one  of 
the  clumsy  beasts  to  the  ground  in  such  a way  as 
to  expose  its  throat  to  the  priestly  executioner,  a 
man  of  great  size,  who  promptly  thrusts  in  a long. 


BELIEFS  AND  RITES 


1 68 

shining  blade.  The  blood  spurts  into  a wide-necked 
copper  jar,  produced  for  the  occasion.  The  sword 
flashes  once  more  and  a groan  escapes  from  the  victim 
in  its  death  agony.  The  great  body  oscillates  and 
falls  to  the  ground  with  a thud.  The  ceremony  is 
consummated.  One  of  the  assistants  now  dips  a small 
broom  in  the  jar  and  takes  up  some  of  the  blood,  and 
the  members  of  the  family  gather  round  the  carcase. 
The  women  crouch  on  the  ground  with  their  hands 
before  their  faces  and  utter  hollow  groans.  The 
dead  beast  is  now  covered  with  the  clothing  of  the 
deceased,  consisting  of  the  cloak,  the  skirt,  a pipe, 
some  other  object  he  has  cherished  in  life.  The 
Sorcerer  in  the  role  of  High  Priest  advances  and 
commences  to  recite  the  virtues  of  the  dead  hero  in 
a hoUow  voice. 

“ He  was  strong.” 

“ Strong,”  repeat  the  company  in  chorus. 

“ His  arrow  was  both  swift  and  sure.” 

“ Swift  and  sure,”  comes  the  echo. 

Each  time  the  Sorcerer’s  words  are  repeated  a 
terrific  bang  on  a gong  makes  the  distant  mountains 
ring.  The  litany  proceeds  until  the  catalogue  of 
the  great  departed’s  deeds  is  complete. 

This  ceremony  recurs  without  variation  until  all 
the  victims  have  perished. 

The  first  time  I witnessed  such  a scene  no  less 
than  nine  animals  were  sacrificed,  though  the  village 
boasted  of  only  twenty-five  families. 

When  the  last  rite  has  been  accomplished  the 


BELIEFS  AND  RITES 


169 

assistants  drag  away  the  carcases  and  proceed  to 
the  distribution  of  the  haunches  and  intestines,  after 
which  the  remains  are  hoisted  to  poles  adorned  with 
garlands.  The  horns  are  severed  from  the  base  of 
the  skull  and  suspended  from  the  sacrificial  post 
until  the  same  ceremony  in  the  next  year. 

The  only  variation  I have  ever  been  able  to  discover 
on  these  occasions  is  the  following.  Among  certain 
groups  the  buffalo  is  stricken  down  by  the  warriors 
who  stand  round  it  in  a ring  and  hurl  their  javelins 
in  turn.  Once  down,  however,  the  death-blow  is 
administered  exactly  as  I have  described  above,  and 
the  blood  allowed  to  flow  to  the  last  drop.  This 
last  incident  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  all  ritual 
sacrifices,  for  all  primitive  races  agree  in  regarding 
blood  as  the  most  acceptable  offering  to  the  gods. 

Ceremonies  of  a ritualistic  character  also  take 
place  when  a death  occurs.  The  corpse  is  immedi- 
ately propped  up  against  one  wall  of  the  hut,  a little 
rice  is  thrust  into  its  mouth,  and  each  member  of 
the  family  bawls  into  its  ears  in  turn.  One  of  the 
women  goes  out  to  the  nearest  stream  with  a jar 
and  brings  back  some  holy  water.  The  body  is 
then  laid  out  in  a somewhat  summary  manner  and 
sewn  up  in  a sack  of  coarse  cloth  which  serves  for 
shroud,  after  which  a few  branches  are  strewn  over 
it.  The  children  begin  a melancholy  chant  accom- 
panying themselves  on  gongs  and  wailing  women 
take  up  the  refrain.  The  house  is  lit  day  and  night 
by  torches  which  emit  a strong  resinous  odour.  If 


170  BELIEFS  AND  RITES 

the  dead  man  is  a person  of  importance  the  in  • 
habitants  of  the  neighbouring  villages  are  invited 
and  the  funeral  ceremonies  may  last  several  days 
A huge  metal  pot  is  then  placed  under  the  open  piles 
on  which  the  hut  stands.  Its  purpose  is  to  catch 
the  liquids  which  may  exude  from  the  putrefying 
corpse,  for  the  belief  is  general  that  malevolent  Spirits 
are  particularly  fond  of  this  form  of  nourishment. 

When  all  the  mourners  are  assembled  the  inter- 
ment proper  begins.  With  the  first  signs  of  day  the 
bearers  take  up  the  body,  convey  it  rapidly  through 
every  room  of  the  house,  and  after  wrapping  it  in 
large  palm  leaves  secure  it  to  a stout  bamboo  pole. 
The  next  matter  is  to  get  it  out  of  the  house  in  such 
a way  that  it  wiU  never  know  the  point  of  exit.  Other- 
wise the  Spirit  will  surely  find  its  way  back  and  con- 
tinue to  haunt  the  living.  Accordingly,  an  opening 
is  very  carefully  made  in  the  thatched  walls  or  roof, 
so  that  the  breach  wiU  close  of  itself  when  the  corpse 
has  passed  through.  The  next  stage  is  the  procession 
to  the  burial  ground.  The  mourners  and  relatives 
form  up  in  Indian  file  and  the  whole  party  proceeds 
in  a direct  line  westwards.  After  marching  a few 
miles  the  bearers  stop  short  in  the  depths  of  the 
forest.  They  proclaim  that  the  corpse  has  suddenly 
become  heavier  by  way  of  asserting  its  predilection 
for  that  particular  spot.  In  truth  and  fact  this 
piece  of  pantomime  is  merely  set  form,  for  in  nearly 
every  case  the  presence  of  several  newly-made  graves 
indicates  that  the  family  burial-place  has  been  reached. 


BELIEFS  AND  RITES 


171 

The  bearers  now  choose  a tree,  which  they  proceed 
to  cut  down,  hollow  out,  and  transform  into  a rude 
coffin.  At  the  same  time  others  of  the  party  dig 
the  grave  itself,  which  is  only  deep  and  wide  enough 
to  accommodate  the  bier.  The  body  is  always 
placed  in  such  a way  that  the  head  points  westwards. 

The  women  gather  round  the  corpse,  crouching 
on  the  ground,  wailing  and  tearing  their  hair.  The 
men  stand  about,  affecting  an  air  of  utter  indifference. 
The  deceased  is  now  placed  in  one  half  of  the 
hollowed  trunk,  into  which  the  relatives  throw 
amulets,  domestic  utensils  (carefully  broken  first), 
rice,  maize  and  various  kinds  of  fruit.  Sometimes 
a hollow  cane  is  passed  through  the  lid  of  the  coffin 
and  the  earth  above,  ending  in  a small  funnel  through 
which  liquids  can  be  poured. 

As  soon  as  the  earth  has  been  returned  the  bearers 
stamp  it  down  with  their  feet  and  cover  the  spot  with 
brambles  to  keep  off  marauding  beasts.  A kind  of 
roof  of  palm  leaves  is  erected  over  the  tomb  and  on 
this  are  placed  the  broken  pieces  of  the  deceased’s 
cooking-pot  and  cup  and  a further  supply  of  pro- 
visions which  are  renewed  at  each  new  moon  during 
the  first  year  but  less  frequently  afterwards.  The 
mourners  now  leave  and  strive  to  forget  their  grief 
in  a feast  which  varies  in  magnificence  with  the 
infiuence  and  social  position  of  the  departed  brother. 

Apart  from  the  renewal  of  the  provisions  and  the 
annual  commemorative  festival,  I noticed  no  other 
particular  mortuary  observances  among  the  Moi. 


172 


BELIEFS  AND  RITES 


The  individual  gravestone  which  is  met  with  every- 
where in  China  and  Annam  seems  to  be  unknown 
among  the  uncivilized  groups  of  Indo-China. 

The  chief  sign  of  mourning  is  to  keep  the  hair 
cropped  quite  close  for  a period  varying  from  one 
to  five  years.  The  return  to  ordinary  life  is  marked 
by  a ceremony,  in  the  course  of  which  some  animal  is 
sacrificed.  The  liberated  mourner  boils  its  head 
and  carries  it  to  lay  on  the  tomb  of  the  deceased, 
after  which  all  are  at  liberty  to  make  short  work  of 
the  rest  of  the  animal. 

It  is  hardly  surprising  that  mourning  is  not  ex- 
pressed by  any  change  of  dress,  for  the  scanty  supply 
of  flimsy  wrappings  does  not  permit  of  much  variation. 

This  is  perhaps  a convenient  moment  to  mention 
certain  burial  rites,  which  seem  peculiar  to  the  savage 
tribes  of  Tong-King,  where  the  influence  of  Chinese 
customs  and  manners  is  easily  traceable. 

When  a Tho  dies  the  family  strew  the  floor  of  the 
house  with  a vast  number  of  minute  pieces  of  gold 
and  silver  paper.  These  baubles  attract  the  Spirits, 
which  can  then  be  easily  captured.  A cloth  mask  is 
placed  over  the  dead  man’s  face  and  goose  feathers  are 
fastened  into  his  clothing  to  enable  him  to  soar  over 
the  rivers  which  might  otherwise  impede  his  pro- 
gress in  the  world  beyond.  A complete  set  of  writing- 
materials  is  put  in  the  coffin  so  that  he  may 
have  no  difficulty  in  communicating  his  ideas  and 
experiences  to  the  living.  The  Sorcerer  furnishes 
the  deceased  with  a passport  and  complete  directions 


BELIEFS  AND  RITES 


173 


as  to  his  behaviour  in  the  new  existence.  The  grave 
is  not  dug  until  the  Geomancer  has  determined  the 
exact  spot  by  means  of  two  sticks  and  a piece  of  cord. 
An  immense  catafalque  painted  in  five  colours  is 
raised  over  the  corpse,  and  under  this  imposing  arch 
the  dead  man’s  sons  pass  in  procession,  leaning  on 
their  “ Weeping  Sticks  ” and  preceded  by  an  atten- 
dant who  throws  handfuls  of  maize  into  the  air  to 
distract  the  attention  of  evil  Spirits. 

When  the  interment  is  over  the  Sorcerer  proceeds 
to  burn  the  catafalque,  which,  being  no  more  than  a 
slender  framework  of  bamboo  covered  with  sheets 
of  paper  or  flimsy  material,  offers  no  resistance. 

A few  days  after  this  ceremony  those  of  the  dead 
man’s  sons  who  have  founded  a household  of  their 
own  raise  a small  hut  near  their  own  establishment 
to  accommodate  the  personal  belongings  of  the 
deceased. 

Lest  the  soul  should  grow  weary  in  its  new  abode 
pipes  of  opium  are  constantly  prepared  for  it  and 
placed  in  this  hut.  Further,  occasional  diversion  is 
provided  by  organizing  a ritual  dance,  in  which  many 
persons  take  part.  To  complete  the  entertainment 
of  the  Spirit,  the  dancers  wear  quite  special  costume, 
consisting  of  a mask  representing  the  marabout 
stork.  From  this  mask  falls  a long  veil  which  com- 
pletely conceals  the  dancer’s  body  and  produces  a 
resemblance  lively  enough  to  give  to  this  ceremony 
*'‘^e  name  of  “ The  Dance  of  the  Marabouts.” 

i Jl 

The  burning  of  the  catafalque  by  the  Tho  calls 


174 


BELIEFS  AND  RITES 


to  mind  a curious  burial  rite  observed  in  some  places 
in  France.  When  a Savoyard  dies  his  relations  put 
on  gloves,  fasten  an  armlet  on  their  sleeves,  and 
themselves  carry  the  coffin  to  the  cemetery.  Before 
the  earth  is  returned  to  the  grave  they  throw  these 
gloves  and  armlets  into  the  bier  and  take  back  the 
pall  to  the  cure,  who  burns  it.  If  this  custom  is 
originally  due  to  the  fear  of  contagion  from  anything 
which  has  come  into  contact  with  the  coffin  it  can 
hardly  be  disputed  that  we  are  face  to  face  with  a 
true  prophylactic  rite. 

Among  the  Meo,  when  a man  dies  the  relatives 
tie  a lacquer  dog  to  the  end  of  a string,  which  is  put 
in  his  hand.  The  reason  for  this  is  the  belief  that 
the  animal  will  lead  its  master  through  the  tangled 
by-paths  of  his  new  domain.  The  corpse  is  taken 
to  the  tomb  seated  in  a chair.  A plank  is  laid  at  the 
bottom  of  the  grave  and  the  body  lowered  on  to  it. 

A similar  custom  is  found  among  the  Indians  of 
British  Columbia,  who  believe  that  the  dead  warrior 
must  never  be  put  in  his  coffin  in  the  house,  lest  the 
relatives  should  lose  their  souls  which  would  be 
attracted  by  the  bier  and  try  to  get  into  it.  They 
also  follow  the  practice  I have  described  above  of 
taking  the  corpse  out  through  the  roof  or  a hole  made 
in  the  walls. 

Another  custom  popular  in  Tong-King  is  for  the 
mourners,  as  soon  as  the  funeral  rites  are  accomplished, 
to  walk  through  a narrow  passage  made  between 
trees  or  bushes  set  very  close  together.  By  rubbing 


Funeral  Rites : The  Body  in  a Coffin  made  from  the  Hollowed  Trunk  of  a Tree. 


\To  lace 


Funeral  Rites  : The  Body  by  its  weight  has  indicated  its  wish  to  be  buried  in  this  Spot. 


BELIEFS  AND  RITES 


175 


themselves  against  these  obstacles  they  shake  off  any 
Spirit  which  might  have  attached  itself  to  them 
during  the  interment. 

The  direction  in  which  the  corpse  faces  is  every- 
where considered  a matter  of  the  utmost  importance. 
Certain  races  of  the  Congo,  for  example  the  Bongo, 
have  one  rule  for  the  men  and  another  for  the  women, 
the  former  facing  north,  the  latter  south. 

The  Moi  cemeteries  vary  greatly  in  different 
regions.  Some  tribes  favour  a kind  of  family  burial 
hut,  on  the  floor  of  which  the  coffins  are  laid  in  rows. 
The  interstices  of  the  coffin  are  then  carefully  filled 
up  with  cement  made  of  clay  and  pulped  leaves. 
This  mausoleum  is  always  in  the  middle  of  a rice 
or  maize  field  at  a convenient  distance  from  the 
village.  As  a rule  the  edifice  has  no  distinct  decora- 
tive features,  but  is  usually  surrounded  by  a wooden 
palisade  carved  with  rough  figures.  A circular  ditch, 
a yard  wide  and  two  yards  deep,  is  dug  round  the 
cemetery.  The  earth  thus  removed  is  accumulated 
on  one  spot  and  gradually  forms  a conical  mound. 
I have  occasionally  seen  such  a mound  surrounded 
by  a palisade  of  which  each  post  had  received  in- 
dividual artistic  treatment. 

A common  feature  of  all  cemeteries  is  a wooden 
shanty  looking  like  a European  pigeon-house,  in 
which  are  stored  the  bones  of  the  victims  offered  up 
in  sacrifice  for  the  dead.  These  charnel  houses 
are  often  painted  with  the  blood  of  slaughtered  animals. 

A funeral  pyre  is  reserved  only  for  the  Kings 


176  BELIEFS  AND  RITES 

of  Fire  and  Water.  Burial  in  the  earth  is  the  rul 
among  all  branches  of  this  group.  Among  a few 
tribes  the  coffins  are  hoisted  to  the  branches  of  trees 
and  secured  with  rattan  threads.  Pieces  of  coarse 
cloth  wrapped  round  the  corpse  are  considered 
sufficient  to  protect  it  from  the  weather.  These 
aerial  cemeteries  are  also  found  in  Borneo. 

In  all  parts  of  the  country  the  natives  displayed 
the  greatest  anxiety  that  we  should  not  disturb  their 
tombs.  We  paid  due  regard  to  their  susceptibilities, 
carrying  our  respect  for  their  customs  even  to  the 
length  of  abandoning  a valley  which  seemed  an  ideal 
site  for  the  track  of  the  Trans-Indo-Chinese  railway, 
but  which  was  honeycombed  with  graves. 


CHAPTER  IX 


ART  AND  CULTURE 

The  relation  between  the  evolution  of  artistic  expression  and  social  develop- 
ment as  Illustrated  by  the  Moi  and  the  Laotians — The  intimate  con- 
nection between  Music,  Dance  and  Stage — A Moi  orchestra  and  war 
dance — Deficiencies  in  the  sense  of  sound  due  to  lack  of  artistic 
education— The  effect  of  a gramophone — Predominance  of  the  analytical 
over  the  synthetical  faculty — Exaggerated  respect  for  form — Im- 
pression produced  by  the  stereoscope — Decorative  arts — Sports, 
fetes,  and  public  amusements — Extensive  use  of  marks  for  ritual  and 
other  purposes. 

JT  has  often  been  said  that  the  craving  for  aesthetic 
expression,  inherent  in  human  nature,  lies  dor- 
mant until  men  have  taken  their  first  steps  in  the 
path  of  civilization,  but  that  after  that  stage  has 
been  passed  its  own  growth  is  commensurate  with 
the  advance  that  is  made. 

Whatever  may  be  the  truth  of  this,  it  is  undoubtedly 
illustrated  by  a comparison  between  the  artistic 
intelligence  of  the  uncivilized  Moi  of  Annam  and 
that  of  his  immediate  neighbour,  the  Laotian. 

The  former,  living  among  a society  which  exhibits 
few  traces  of  organization  or  corporate  existence, 
seems  totally  innocent  of  any  desire  to  exploit  his 
aesthetic  emotions  for  the  benefit  of  others.  If  he 


177 


12 


178 


ART  AND  CULTURE 


sings,  it  is  for  the  good  of  his  own  soul,  not  for  the 
entertainment  of  his  neighbours.  His  song  consists 
of  a rhythmic  cadence  produced  either  by  a series 
of  inarticulate  sounds  or  by  a meaningless  repetition 
of  an  interjection,  a syllable,  or  a word.  He  is  not 
sociable,  much  less  altruistic.  Why,  then,  should  he 
give  himself  the  trouble  of  manoeuvring  his  feet  or 
acting  a scene  for  the  sole  benefit  of  the  spectators  ? 
Accordingly  these  two  artistic  manifestations,  dancing 
and  music,  are  almost  unknown  among  the  Moi. 

The  Laotian,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a gregarious 
animal  and  likes  nothing  better  than  to  express  his 
sociable  instincts  in  public  rejoicings  of  all  kinds. 
He  is  not  satisfied  with  song  by  itself  but  accom- 
panies his  outbursts  with  pantomime  of  various 
kinds,  and  also  dances  which  are  intended  to  recall 
the  past  or  provoke  desire.  The  favourite  scenes 
which  are  represented  are  an  elephant  hunt  or  a 
combat,  if  the  feelings  to  be  relieved  are  particularly 
warlike.  If,  however,  the  singer-dancer-actor  is  in 
peaceful  mood  the  scenes  enacted  will  be  those  of 
ploughing,  sowing  and  harvest.  These  mock  plays 
vary  greatly  with  the  degree  of  civilization  to  which 
each  group  has  arrived. 

It  has  been  said  that  music  usually  excites  the 
listener  to  movement  or  action.  This  is  probably 
because,  originally,  music  was  always  associated  with 
miming  and  dance,  and  the  effect  is  still  felt  after  the 
cause  has  disappeared.  However  that  may  be,  music 
has  always  inspired  to  high  deeds,  whether  by  acting 


ART  AND  CULTURE 


179 

as  an  intellectual  stimulant  to  the  listener  whose 
brain  dwarfs  his  muscles,  or  as  a physical  stimulant  to 
the  listener  in  whom  matter  dominates  mind.  Music 
inspired  Dante  to  some  of  his  greatest  poems  and 
John  Stuart  Mill  to  some  of  his  profoundest  and 
most  original  philosophical  speculations. 

One  explanation  of  the  fact  that  song  is  the  first 
artistic  manifestation  of  primitive  man  is  the  pro- 
bability that  his  first  articulate  utterances  were  either 
cries  or  actually  sung.  Even  to-day  a child  which  is 
completely  isolated  from  birth  will  be  able  to  sing 
but  will  never  learn  to  talk.  All  mothers  know  that 
a child’s  first  cries  are  attempts  to  sing.  Only  after 
the  lapse  of  a year  does  it  accustom  itself  to  employ 
the  speaking  voice.  It  does  not  seem  altogether 
presumptuous,  therefore,  to  believe  that  in  the 
infancy  of  man  Music  was  the  aesthetic  imitation  of 
his  first  vocal  utterances. 

Later,  man  realized  that  it  was  possible  to  add 
volume  and  variation  by  accompanying  the  sounds 
with  rhythmical  beats  produced  by  some  object 
within  reach.  Of  such  objects  are  the  familiar  stick, 
with  which  the  aborigines  of  Australia  mark  time,  and 
the  heel  of  the  Moi  dancer  which  sets  the  measure  for 
a warlike  march  with  its  regular  taps  on  the  ground. 

Soon  other  embellishments  follow^.  The  gourd 
finds  itself  the  rustic  tom-tom,  a popular  instrument 
among  the  Moi  as  among  the  native  races  of  Africa. 
The  hollow  bamboo  stalk  appears  in  all  the  glory  of 
a flute.  Finally,  the  orchestra  makes  its  bow  with 

12* 


i8o  ART  AND  CULTURE 

the  invention  of  stringed  instruments  and  gradually 
supersedes  the  human  voice,  which  it  was  originally 
only  designed  to  accompany. 

The  evolution  I have  outlined  was  brilliantly 
illustrated  in  Greece,  where  we  can  easily  follow  the 
successive  stages  by  which  Music  liberated  itself 
from  the  trammels  of  Dance  and  Pantomime  and 
emerged  as  a self-contained  art  of  its  own. 

There  is  little  to  be  said  about  the  Moi  dancing, 
which  shows  lack  of  imagination  and  invention. 
The  funeral  and  war-dances  are  characterized  by 
conventional  steps  with  few  features  of  distinction,  a 
fact  which  corroborates  the  view  expressed  above 
that  artistic  development  follows  in  the  path  of 
civilization. 

The  orchestra  comprises  various  instruments  which 
can  be  used  both  for  purposes  of  solo  and  accompani- 
ment. The  lower  parts  are  entrusted  to  a wooden 
box  measuring  a yard  across,  with  a series  of  holes 
over  which  a buffalo  skin  is  tightly  stretched.  The 
volume  of  sound  is  augmented  by  metal  buttons 
secured  to  nails  distributed  over  the  surface  of  the 
instrument,  as  also  by  bells  of  different  sizes.  This 
discordant  and  formidable  sound-box  is  vigorously 
thumped  with  a mallet  and  accompanied  by  brass 
or  copper  gongs,  which  are  frequently  hung  from  the 
roof  and  played  like  bells.  The  “ Rade  ” and 
“ Djarai  ” groups  also  use  wooden  or  metal  discs 
joined  in  pairs,  which  are  clashed  together  after  the 
manner  of  cymbals. 


ART  AND  CULTURE 


i8i 


The  instruments  to  accompany  the  voice  are 
various  species  of  fifes  and  flutes,  of  which  the  most 
popular  consists  of  five  or  six  bamboo  tubes  of  different 
lengths  soldered  with  clay  to  a large  gourd. 

Each  district  has  its  favourite  tunes  which  gradually 
become  recognizable  to  the  European  ear  and,  though 
at  first  they  seem  devoid  of  all  musical  qualities,  it 
is  surprising  how  soon  a particular  rhythm  or  melody 
fixes  itself  on  the  mind  and  tickles  the  fancy. 

Singing  seems  to  be  a form  of  diversion  confined 
to  the  women.  On  the  other  hand,  a woman  in  an 
orchestra  is  an  exceptional  phenomenon,  and  it  is 
only  on  rare'  occasions  that  she  is  allowed  to  take 
part  even  in  a dance.  The  song  seems  to  be  nothing 
more  than  an  emission  of  sounds  having  no  musical 
relation  to  each  other  whatever.  It  is  a monotonous 
recitative,  broken  only  by  more  or  less  passionate 
inter]  ectional  explosions.  The  series  of  notes  is 
dependent  solely  on  the  singer’s  sweet  will.  She 
seems  to  have  no  idea  of  what  she  is  singing,  for 
frequently  when  a particular  phrase  caught  our 
fancy  and  we  asked  for  it  again  she  confessed  her 
utter  inability  to  repeat  it.  The  sounds  are  harsh  and 
piercing,  and  usually  recall  the  cries  of  wild  beasts. 

Strange  though  it  may  sound,  it  is  nevertheless 
true  that  the  hearing  of  the  Moi  is  extremely  quick 
and  well  trained.  He  can  recognize  the  ticking  of 
a watch  ten  yards  away  and  the  sound  of  a rifle  at  a 
distance  of  four  miles.  Of  course  there  is  all  the 
difference  between  having  quick  hearing  and  a good 


i82 


ART  AND  CULTURE 


ear  for  music.  The  latter  quality  depends,  not  on 
the  physical  construction  of  the  organ,  but  on  artistic 
education,  in  which  the  Moi  have  always  remained 
lacking. 

It  is  an  old  saying  that  the  savage  always  prefers 
something  which  appeals  to  him  by  its  violence. 
The  more  harsh  and  strident  are  the  sounds  the 
more  they  will  appeal  to  his  musical  taste.  To 
put  this  theory  to  the  proof  we  frequently  tested  the 
native  preferences  with  our  gramophone. 

No  one  could  imagine  the  curiosity  aroused  in 
the  village  the  first  time  we  gave  a concert  on  this 
instrument.  Our  geodetical  operations  were  in  full 
swing  and,  apart  from  the  interest  created  by  these, 
we  had  gathered  huge  audiences  of  women  and 
children  by  filling  up  the  intervals  of  our  work  "with 
impromptu  performances  for  their  benefit.  Our  main 
“ turns,”  which  never  varied,  but  of  which  they 
never  seemed  to  grow  weary,  were  as  follows.  We 
used  to  light  a cigarette  from  a distance  by  means 
of  a magnifying  glass,  or  show  them  a compass  of 
which  the  needle  seemed  to  move  exactly  where 
and  when  we  pleased.  Other  objects  of  immense 
popular  interest  were  our  watches  with  their 
mysterious  ticking,  the  cork-screw  of  a wonderful 
eight-bladed  knife,  and,  marvel  of  marvels,  the 
astronomical  telescope  which  made  it  possible  to 
recognize  a friend  at  a distance  of  more  than  three 
hundred  yards  and  which  compelled  him  to  walk 
on  his  head  ! 


ART  AND  CULTURE 


183 

In  view  of  these  wonders  our  fame  spread  abroad, 
and  when  our  concert  was  announced  each  man 
told  his  neighbour  that  a trick  yet  more  marvellous 
than  any  yet  seen  was  about  to  be  performed  by 
the  bearded  strangers  with  pockets  bulging  with 
tobacco  ! 

In  a very  short  time  the  huts  were  empty  though 
the  heat  was  appalling.  Even  the  village  sluggards 
left  their  perpetual  siesta,  and  in  many  cases  women 
and  children  brought  their  menfolk  by  main  force. 
No  one  was  allowed  to  remain  behind  on  so  important 
an  occasion.  Soon  the  audience  was  gathered  round 
us,  the  children  in  front,  the  mothers  squatting  in 
groups,  the  warriors  standing  about  with  an  affected 
air  of  lofty  indifference.  A lively  dispute  as  to 
the  choice  of  records  roused  public  interest  to  fever 
heat,  and  as  no  two  of  us  thought  alike,  each  holding 
out  for  his  favourite  piece,  we  settled  the  vexed 
question  by  drawing  lots.  The  choice  fell  on  the 
“ Spring  Song,”  which,  however,  met  with  little 
favour.  The  audience  evidently  had  no  opinion  of 
Mendelssohn.  The  small  children  made  for  their 
mother’s  arms  in  terror  and  were  only  consoled  with 
difficulty.  The  general  feeling  was  one  of  astonish- 
ment passing  to  displeasure.  We  hastily  took  off 
that  record  and  replaced  it  by  a hunting-chorus 
well  sprinkled  with  the  blare  of  horns.  This  met 
with  a most  enthusiastic  reception. 

The  standard  and  canons  of  musical  taste  among 
he  Moi  were  thus  brutally  revealed  to  us.  We 


1 84  ART  AND  CULTURE 

took  the  hint  at  once.  The  beautiful  collections  of 
chamber-music  which  had  so  often  charmed  our 
ill-temper  with  its  memories  of  far-away  France 
were  hastily  dismissed  to  the  bottom  of  the  box. 
We  put  on  all  the  loudest  band  records  we  had  and 
then  raided  our  stock  for  selections  on  all  the  noisiest 
instruments.  The  neighbouring  forest  was  soon 
echoing  the  strident  notes  of  xylophone,  banjo, 
ocarina  and  trombone.  We  went  to  the  music-halls 
and  called  on  the  singers  and  whistlers,  and  when 
the  interval  was  announced  after  “ Fou  Rire,”  the 
entire  audience  went  off  almost  convulsed  with 
attempts  to  imitate  it. 

Quite  recently  we  prevailed  on  the  Chief  of  a 
neighbouring  tribe  to  allow  us  to  make  a record  of 
his  speeches  at  a wedding-feast  to  which  we  had 
been  invited.  Without  giving  any  warning  we 
then  turned  on  the  disc.  The  audience  pricked 
up  its  ears  and  seemed  intensely  interested  to  hear 
the  well-known  voice  under  such  novel  circum- 
stances. Suddenly,  before  the  record  was  half-way 
through,  a slave  seized  hold  of  a jar  of  spirits  and 
tried  to  empty  its  contents  down  the  trumpet  of  the 
instrument.  It  took  all  my  strength  and  eloquence 
to  dissuade  him  from  this  fell  purpose.  The  audience, 
however,  seemed  to  take  his  intervention  as  a matter 
of  course.  The  explanation  of  this  unforeseen 
attack  was  simple.  The  gramophone,  faithfully 
recording  the  utterances  of  the  chief,  had  demanded, 
on  its  own  behalf,  something  to  drink  ! 


ART  AND  CULTURE 


i8s 

After  this,  of  course,  we  had  to  go  through  our 
repertoire,  at  the  end  of  which  an  escort  appeared  to 
take  the  marvellous  apparatus  home.  The  grateful 
audience  surpassed  by  smothering  it  with  wrappings 
of  all  kinds.  They  would  rather  have  died  than 
allow  such  angelic  voices  to  run  the  risk  of  catching 
cold. 

Another  explanation  of  their  tastes  in  music  is 
the  love  of  exaggeration  in  any  and  every  form  which 
seems  to  sway  the  savage.  The  sound  that  pleases 
him  must  be  explosive.  A colour  must  be  brilliant, 
an  outline  striking  or  grotesque.  The  more  we 
examined  examples  of  their  decorative  art,  a branch 
of  activity  for  which  the  Moi  display  real  aptitude, 
the  more  we  realized  their  over-emphasis  of  the 
dominant  lines.  Another  characteristic,  common 
among  all  races  with  a low  standard  of  culture,  is 
their  repugnance  to  leave  bare  places  in  a scheme  of 
decoration.  There  are  no  such  things  as  contrast, 
foil,  or  background.  Each  part  of  the  design  has 
as  much  importance  as  any  other.  If  they  decorate 
a room,  for  example,  they  do  not  leave  the  smallest 
space  without  treatment  of  some  kind.  It  follows 
from  this  that  the  Moi,  as  critic,  is  concerned  solely 
with  details  and  has  no  thought  of  the  inward 
meaning  or  larger  significance  of  a composition. 

I frequently  demonstrated  the  truth  of  this  observa- 
tion by  the  following  experiment.  When  I visited 
a new  group  I used  to  make  a bid  for  popular  favour 
by  a generous  distribution  of  tobacco  to  the  few 


1 86  ART  AND  CULTURE 

children  who  overcame  their  alarm  at  my  beard  and 
strange  costume.  Thus  encouraged,  they  soon  flocked 
round  when  I drew  out  my  pocket  stereoscope  and  a 
box  of  slides  consisting  of  photographs  of  children 
of  the  neighbouring  tribes,  taken  at  a moment  when 
these  restless  rascals  were  still.  The  astonished 
exclamations  of  my  juvenile  audience  soon  brought 
their  mothers,  grandfathers,  and  even  some  of  the 
less  shy  sisters  on  the  scene.  The  men,  of  course, 
were  either  out  hunting  or  busy  with  a siesta  which 
must  on  no  account  be  interrupted.  A circle  was 
formed  round  me  and  every  one  had  a look  in 
turn. 

“ What  a big  nose  ! ” said  number  one.  “ There’s 
the  red  mark  of  betel  on  his  mouth,”  he  continued. 
“ Look  at  the  lovely  white  ring  in  his  ear  ! Why, 
it’s  a whole  head  ! I believe  it’s  ‘ Little  Buffalo  ’ 
who  came  here  with  his  father  for  the  last  harvest  ! ” 

He  was  right.  It  was  indeed  “ Little  Buffalo,” 
whose  resemblance  was  thus  not  established  before 
our  savage  had  examined  every  detail  of  his  face. 

Shouts  of  laughter  greeted  the  discovery  and  it  was 
plain  that  they  all  really  thought  “ Little  Buffalo  ” was 
there  in  the  flesh.  They  all  put  out  their  hands 
to  feel  him,  and  great  was  the  amazement  when  they 
only  touched  the  back  of  the  card.  My  box  of  slides 
soon  acquired  a baneful  reputation  as  the  abode 
of  Spirits. 

One  day  a woman  came  to  see  me  to  announce 
that  her  baby  had  died  a few  days  after  I had  taken 


A Medical  Examination. 


Looking  through  the  Scereoscope. 


[To  lace  p.  186. 


Three  Boys  ol  our  Native  Guard. 


[To  face  p.  187. 


ART  AND  CULTURE  187 

its  photograph.  I was  hardly  surprised,  for  the 
child  was  very  ill  at  the  time. 

“ Great  Master,”  she  said,  “ my  baby  is  in  your 
box.  Please  give  me  another  at  once,  but  this  time 
it  must  be  one  already  brought  up.” 

She  was  astounded  when,  to  grant  her  request,  I 
sent  her  off  to  her  husband  ! 

Doctor  O.  Munsterberg,  in  an  interesting  study, 
has  advanced  the  view  that  in  its  origin  art  is  nothing 
but  realism.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  savage 
mind  seems  entirely  preoccupied  with  the  concrete, 
and  entirely  incapable  of  comprehending  abstract 
ideas.  It  is  equally  true  that  we  have  changed  our 
methods  of  teaching  the  natives  in  the  light  of  this 
discovery  and  that  the  results  obtained  illustrate  the 
inevitable  failure  of  our  old  system.  No  one  doubts 
that  a child  learns  to  reproduce  a drawing  of  some 
familiar  object  far  more  easily  than  a symbol,  such 
as  a letter  of  the  alphabet,  which  is  not  identified 
with  anything  having  a concrete  existence. 

The  art  of  the  Moi  is  nothing  if  not  realistic.  It 
is  also  solely  and  totally  utilitarian,  since  it  is  con- 
fined to  industrial  use.  The  figures  employed  for 
ornamentation  are  invariably  taken  from  the  animal 
or  vegetable  world  with  which  they  are  familiar. 
For  instance,  popular  subjects  for  reproduction  (not 
without  remarkable  transformations)  are  the  tracks 
of  a hen  in  the  dust,  the  marks  on  the  skin  left  by 
the  bristles  of  a boar,  the  teeth  of  a saw,  the  scales 
of  a turtle,  or  the  crested  ridge  of  a fish’s  back.  It 


i88 


ART  AND  CULTURE 


will  be  recalled  in  this  connection  that  many  of 
these  signs  are  adopted  as  tribal  or  proprietary 
symbols. 

The  favourite  objects  for  decoration  are  pipes, 
quivers  and  drinking  horns.  When  the  artist  has 
finished  his  design  he  smears  blood  over  the  subject, 
both  to  throw  up  the  outlines  of  the  figure  and  also 
to  add  a touch  of  violent  colour. 

Sculpture  is  still  in  its  infancy.  In  many  of  the 
cemeteries  the  traveller  will  find  figures  of  seated 
women,  their  hair  lank  and  dirty,  supporting  their 
elbows  on  their  knees  and  covering  their  faces  with 
their  hands.  These  are  the  widows,  who,  in  a truly 
life-like  attitude  of  desolation,  weep  for  the  departed. 
The  impression  of  reality  is  heightened  by  covering 
their  heads  with  human  hair  and  their  bodies  with 
ragged  clothing. 

There  is  a close  kinship  between  the  art  of  the 
Moi  and  that  of  the  uncivilized  peoples  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  another  proof  that  all  these  races  are 
branches  of  the  same  stock.  Their  art  exhibits  the 
same  sense  of  proportion,  the  same  boldness  of 
design,  the  same  horror  of  empty  spaces  which  is 
revealed  by  the  overloading  of  ornament  and 
exaggeration  of  form. 

The  Moi  by  nature  is  easy-going  and  idle  and 
displays  such  energy  as  he  has  in  devising  fresh  amuse- 
ments. The  prime  distraction  for  him,  however, 
remains  the  opening  of  a jar  of  spirits  of  rice. 

Certain  games  of  skill  are  in  vogue,  of  which 


ART  AND  CULTURE  189 

the  most  interesting  is  a form  of  fencing  in  which 
skill  seems  to  blend  with  a good  deal  of  flourish.  The 
two  combatants  are  armed  with  wooden  sabres, 
smeared  on  the  sharper  edge  with  buffalo’s  blood  so 
as  to  leave  a mark  wherever  it  touches.  The  point 
is  blunted  and  cannot  be  used  by  the  law's  of  the 
game.  Unlike  the  European  rules,  it  is  not  prohibited 
to  strike  the  lower  half  of  the  adversary’s  body. 
Accordingly,  the  fencers  do  not  maintain  any  fixed 
stance,  but  revolve  about  a central  point  and  use 
their  legs  to  ward  off  hostile  passes.  It  is  quite 
usual  to  see  aU  four  limbs  requisitioned  in  an  emer- 
gency. A high  standard  of  acrobatic  agility  and 
sureness  of  eye  and  hand  is  attained. 

A few  of  the  Moi  who  have  lived  among  the 
Laotians  have  brought  back  to  their  countrymen 
various  borrowed  amusements  and,  among  them, 
primitive  stage-plays.  Of  the  plots  of  these,  which 
are  destitute  of  imagination  or  construction,  the 
following  is  typical. 

A few  girls  walk  about  under  the  watchful  eyes 
of  their  parents.  A stranger  appears  and  tries  to 
carry  off  an  unsuspecting  damsel.  A free  fight 
ensues,  in  the  course  of  which  the  ravisher  is  van- 
quished and  pretends  to  fly,  but  as  soon  as  the  pursuit 
slackens  he  returns,  waits  for  a favourable  moment, 
and  catches  his  prey  round  the  waist. 

Shrieks  for  help  ! The  lady  faints  ! 

The  evil  deed  seems  about  to  be  crowned  with 
success  when  a Spirit  appears,  strikes  the  bold  wrong- 


190 


ART  AND  CULTURE 


doer  to  the  ground,  and  leaves  him  lifeless  at  his 
intended  victim’s  feet. 

The  women’s  parts  are  taken  by  boys  in  accordance 
with  the  unwavering  rule  throughout  the  Far  East 
that  females  may  not  appear  in  any  dramatic 
representation. 

The  Moi  celebrate  New  Year’s  Day  with  a festival 
that  lasts  at  least  seven  days.  During  this  period 
etiquette  requires  that  seven  buffaloes,  seven  pigs, 
seven  goats  and  seven  white  cocks  should  be  con- 
sumed and  this  formidable  fare  is  washed  down, 
in  accordance  with  the  rites,  with  the  contents  of 
seven  jars. 

All  the  neighbours  of  the  Laotians  follow  that 
race  in  the  details  of  their  observance  of  these  cere- 
monies, which  are  called  by  their  Laotian  name  of 
“ the  Festival  of  the  Dead  Year.”  The  participants 
are  formed  up  in  a long  procession.  The  girls  sprinkle 
perfumed  water  on  the  boys  they  like  and  throw 
mud  at  those  they  dislike.  Both  the  favoured  and 
the  despised  recipients  of  these  attentions  take  them 
with  good  humour  as  being  part  of  the  day’s  work. 
Actors  then  appear  dressed  to  represent  our  First 
Parents.  According  to  legend  these  two  worthies, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  world,  were  covered  with 
thick  hair  like  the  beasts.  Accordingly,  the  per- 
formers wear  a covering  made  of  innumerable  strips 
of  bamboo. 

The  actors  who  play  Adam,  Eve,  and  the  Dragon, 
cover  their  heads  with  black  wooden  masks  repre- 


ART  AND  CULTURE 


191 

senting  grinning  devils  with  horrible  fangs,  enormous 
ears  and  a tangled  mane  reaching  the  ground.  So 
far  from  exciting  fear  or  even  curiosity,  however, 
these  blood-curdling  apparitions  are  greeted  with 
a universal  shout  of  merriment.  A curious  panto- 
mime follows.  The  three  performers  fall  on  their 
knees,  raise  their  right  arms,  and  manipulate  the 
movable  lower  jaw  of  their  masks  while  delivering- 
in  concert  a wonderful  harangue,  in  the  course  of 
which  they  extol  the  virtues  and  voice  the  most 
intimate  desires  of  each  member  of  the  audience. 
The  last  words  are  a wish  for  a Happy  New  Year  to 
the  village  and  every  living  creature  within  it. 

Amid  the  riotous  plaudits  of  the  crowd  the 
actors  then  retire  with  a profusion  of  bows  and 
capers. 

All  savage  races  are  familiar  with  the  use  of  horrify- 
ing masks  to  heighten  the  effects  of  religious  rites. 
The  fetish  worshippers  of  Africa  regard  them  as  an 
indispensable  accessory  to  the  due  performance  of 
the  ceremonies,  and  every  traveller  has  seen  the 
performers  in  ritual  dances  adorned  with  their 
grotesque  headgear. 

Sometimes  the  masks  have  special  characteristics 
to  connote  the  racial  peculiarities  of  those  who  wear 
them.  The  Moi  masks,  for  example,  are  remarkable 
for  their  long  flowing  hair  and  it  may  well  be 
because  this  people  believe  that  their  ancestors  were 
a hairy  race. 

It  is  quite  usual  for  the  masks  to  commemorate 


ART  AND  CULTURE 


192 

some  ethnical  peculiarity  which  distinguishes  the 
group. 

In  Egypt  the  King  usually  adorned  himself  with 
a mask  of  the  animal-god  from  whom  he  claimed 
descent. 

The  visitor  to  the  Trocadero  in  Paris  will  see 
statues  of  the  Kings  of  Dahomey  represented  as 
sharks,  their  bodies  covered  with  scales.  The  British 
Museum  contains  a number  of  bronze  reliefs  whereon 
the  King  of  Benin  appears  as  half  shark  and  half  man. 

In  short,  in  countries  savage  or  civilized,  masked 
dances  are  nothing  but  crude  attempts  to  dramatize 
popular  myths,  and  accordingly  the  actors  play 
the  roles  either  of  animals  or  the  legendary  heroes 
with  whom  they  battled. 


CHAPTER  X 

INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 

The  relations  between  the  development  of  language  and  social  evolution — 
An  enigmatic  system  of  writing — Knotted  cords,  knotches  in  sticks, 
and  their  accessories — The  evolution  of  literature  among  primitive 
races — Length  of  memory  among  races  that  have  no  written  records 
— Historical  value  of  legends  transmitted  by  oral  tradition — Nature  of 
the  more  usual  alterations  to  be  met  with  in  documentary  folklore — 
The  most  general  legends,  fables  and  proverbs  of  the  Moi. 

'pHE  main  fact  which  differentiates  primitive 
groups  among  themselves  is  diversity  of 
language.  To  this  rule  the  Moi  present  no  exception, 
for  they  offer  the  choice  of  a considerable  number 
of  dialects.  There  are  very  nearly  as  many  dialects] 
as  tribes,  and,  what  at  first  seems  even  more  extra- 
ordinary, the  dialect  of  one  village  is  usually' 
unintelligible  to  the  inhabitants  of  any  other.  But 
this  singularity  vanishes  when,  we  investigate  more 
closely,  and  for  these  reasons. 

The  development  of  a language  is  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  simultaneous  intellectual  arid  social 
evolution  of  the  race  which  employs  it.  Now  the 
civilization  of  the  Moi  has  been  stationary,  if  not 
actually  retrogressive,  for  a prolonged  period,  and 

193  13 


194 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


accordingly  it  is  to  be  expected  that  their  language, 
far  from  consolidating  itself,  should  be  subject  to  all 
the  influences  which  flow  from  contact  with  neigh- 
bouring populations. 

The  learned  philologist  Cabaton  has  classified 
j the  Moi  dialects  into  three  broad  divisions,  according 
j to  the  degree  in  which  they  have  been  modified  by 
- the  tongues  spoken  by  neighbouring  peoples  who  have 
advanced  to  a higher  stage  of  civilization.  These 
three  divisions  comprise  ; 

(a)  Dialects  of  Malayo-Polynesian  origin. 

(^)  Dialects  of  Kmer  origin. 

(c)  Dialects  of  Thibeto-Birman,  Tai  or  Chinese 
origin. 

This  diversity  of  dialects  is  responsible  for  the 
tact  that  the  word  “ Moi  ” has  no  ethnical  sense  at 
all  and  that  it  is  a mere  generic  term  which,  as  I have 
explained  before,  can  conveniently  be  used  to  describe 
the  whole  complex  of  barbarous  groups  which  dwell 
in  the  mountain  uplands  of  Indo-China.  The  word 
does  not  signify  an  autonomous  entity  with  clearly 
defined  characteristics,  but  merely  a medley  of  various 
elements,  of  which  many  have  lost  all  trace  of  common 
origin. 

It  is  even  more  difficult  to  catalogue  the  different 
races  which  go  to  make  up  the  inhabitants  of  Indo- 
China  than  to  catalogue  the  dialects.  At  first  sight 
some  of  them  seem  to  be  pure,  but  closer  inquiry 
soon  dispels  the  illusion.  There  are  many  reasons 
to  account  for  this,  among  which  may  be  cited  the 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


^95 


prevalence  of  polygamy  and  the  perpetual  inter- 
tribal conflictsp  the  course  of  which  the  vanquished, 
after  a short  period,  are  absorbed  by  the  victors,  to 
the  evident  advantage  of  the  latter. 

If  the  dialects  are  innumerable,  there  is  virtually 
only  one  method,  employed  by  all  the  groups,  of 
communicating  ideas  or  transmitting  thought.  It 
^consists  of  the  use  of  certain  conventional  signs.  The 
more  common  of  these  are  triangular  or  hexagonal 
figures  of  bamboo  or  rattan,  measuring  one  foot 
eight  inches  in  their  greater  dimension  and  hung  in 
some  conspicuous  place.  These  geometrical  forms 
j warn  the  traveller  of  impending  danger  or  notify 
a prohibition  to  cross  the  boundary  of  a “ taboo  ” 
village. 

Another  method  of  communication  is  by  means 

I of  a string  with  a series  of  knots.  This  practice  recalls 
the  quipos  which  were  in  use  among  the  Peruvians 
and  Mexicans  to  record  important  events  and  as  a 
medium  for  the  transmission  of  thought. 

Suppose  two  friends  want  to  arrange  an  appoint- 
ment to  meet  in  several  days’  time.  They  present 
I each  other  with  threads  which  have  the  same  number 
) of  knots  and  as  many  knots  as  there  are  days  to  elapse 
before  the  meeting.  Every  day  at  sunrise  each  of 
' them  unties  one  of  the  knots.  When  at  length  there 
are  no  knots  left  they  know  that  the  appointed  day 
' has  arrived. 

It  is  very  curious  that  the  Moi,  whose  recollection 
of  facts  is  almost  infallible,  are  unable  to  recall  either 

13* 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


196 

figures  or  dates  without  the  assistance  of  mechanical 
aids  to  memory. 

Doctor  Noel  Bernard,  of  the  Colonial  Forces, 
tells  a very  interesting  story  in  his  exhaustive  mono- 
graph on  the  Kha. 

“ In  a village  situated  in  the  plateau  of  Boloven 
I found  the  inhabitants  stricken  with  terror.  They 
informed  me  that  a malevolent  Genius  had  been 
enraged  with  them  for  more  than  a year  and  was 
decimating  the  population.  To  remedy  their  ill- 
fortune  they  rebuilt  the  village  in  a new  place,  and 
the  death-rate  decreased.  I happened  to  ask  them 
the  number  of  the  victims  in  that  fatal  year.  They 
could  not  tell  me.  I renewed  the  question  and  the 
village  chief  gave  me  the  figures  in  a highly  novel 
manner.  As  he  called  out  each  victim  by  name  he 
laid  a small  stick  down  at  his  feet.  When  the  counting 
was  completed  the  old  man  summed  up  as  follows  : 
‘ Two  died  during  seed  time,  three  during  harvest, 
four  at  the  beginning  of  the  rains,’  and  so  on,  con- 
cluding with  a tragic,  ‘ What  a number  ! ’ Bui 
not  a single  native  present  could  calculate  that 
number,  though  there  were  only  thirteen  sticks  at 
the  feet  of  the  incompetent  arithmeticians  ! ” 

M.  A.  Gaultier  de  Claubry,  when  he  was  Director 
of  Public  Instruction  in  Indo-China,  had  opportunities 
of  making  observations  which  throw  light  on  the 
incident  just  related.  He  used  to  teach  French  to 
twenty-two  natives  between  the  ages  of  twelve  and 
twenty  and  wished  to  follow  the  ordinary  rational 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


197 


method  of  explaining  the  meaning  of  a lesson  first 
and  asking  his  pupils  to  learn  it  by  heart  only  after 
that  meaning  had  become  clear  in  their  minds. 

After  a period  devoted  to  repeated  attempts  along 
these  lines  he  had  to  confess  himself  beaten  and  that 
the  method  was  impracticable  so  far  as  these  parti- 
cular scholars  were  concerned,  for  the  more  clearly 
they  grasped  the  meaning  of  the  words  the  greater 
was  their  difficulty  in  committing  them  to  memory. 

Contrary  to  all  the  recognized  precepts  of  sound 
teaching,  the  Professor  resolved  to  reverse  the  process, 
make  his  pupils  first  learn  the  lesson  by  heart  and 
only  proceed  to  its  translation  and  explanation  when 
they  could  recite  the  words  without  a slip.  The 
results  were  even  more  unexpected,  for  the  more 
quick  and  certain  their  memories  became  the  greater 
was  their  difficulty  in  understanding  the  meaning  of 
the  words. 

The  Professor  repeated  this  experiment  from  time 
to  time  and  the  same  phenomena  always  recurred. 

It  seems,  therefore,  clearly  arguable  that  in  certain 
individual  cases  connection  between  the  thinking 
and  memorizing  faculties  is  either  missing  or  only 
imperfectly  established.  They  seem  unable  to 
perform  their  functions  simultaneously.  The 
memory  cannot  work  properly  unless  all  other  mental 
processes  are  suspended. 

. But  to  return  to  arithmetic,  the  custom  of  em- 
ploying pieces  of  wood  to  assist  calculation  is  to  be 
found  everywhere  in  the  savage  world.  Our  coolies 


198 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


were  collected  from  many  different  quarters,  but  they 
all  carried  a bamboo  in  which  each  evening  they 
cut  a notch  to  reckon  up  the  number  of  days  of  ser- 
vice. On  pay  days  they  lined  up  solemnly  side  by 
side  and  each  produced  his  stick  from  his  loin-cloth 
and  presented  it  for  inspection.  It  was  very  rarely 
that  our  accountants  found  any  error  in  the  number 
of  the  notches. 

As  will  have  been  gathered  from  the  answers  of 
the  Moi  chief  to  Doctor  Bernard,  the  estimation  of 
time  by  years  of  twelve  months  is  unknown  in  these 
regions.  Savages  date  all  the  events  of  their  lives 
by  their  relation  to  the  occurrences  which  affect 
them  most,  that  is  to  say,  the  variations  of  the 
monsoon  and  the  forward  or  backward  condition  of 
the  crops. 

No  one  knows  his  age,  for  no  practical  benefit  accrues 
from  the  attainment  of  that  piece  of  knowledge. 

The  use  of  sticks  is  not  limited  to  the  purpose  I 
have  mentioned  but  extends  to  the  transmission  of 
orders  or  information.  In  the  last  case  notches  are 
cut  on  both  sides  of  the  stick  and  of  various  forms  and 
depths.  Also  they  will  be  separated  by  spaces  of 
varying  lengths.  Each  of  these  details  has  thus  a 
special  significance. 

This  is  the  method  employed  by  one  village  to 
convey  a declaration  of  war  to  another.  Its  general 
terms  will  be  much  as  follows  : 

“ Twelve  days  hence  we  shall  seize  any  man  who 
crosses  our  boundary.  We  will  not  release  him  except 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


199 


on  ransom,  four  strong  oxen  which  have  already 
worked  in  the  ricefields,  or,  failing  them,  two  sets  of 
gongs  at  least  ten  years  in  the  making.  Our  tribe 
counts  more  than  thirty  young  warriors  trained  to 
the  bow,  and  a great  number  of  old  men,  women  and 
children.” 

Before  being  entrusted  to  the  messenger  charged 
with  delivering  it  to  the  foe  this  ultimatum-stick  is 
decorated,  according  to  immemorial  usage,  with  some 
egret’s  feathers,  a burnt  bamboo,  and  red  pimento. 

The  symbolical  significance  of  these  accessories  is 
as  follows  : 

“ Messenger  ! Thou  must  be  as  swift  as  the  bird 
whose  feather  you  bear.  Thou  shalt  not  stop  by  day 
or  night,  and  this  bamboo  will  point  thy  pathway  in 
the  hours  of  darkness.  Thou  shalt  not  fear  if  thou 
neglectest  not  to  eat  some  pimento  such  as  this.” 

I have  often  met  women  or  old  men  with  these 
notched  laths  hung  round  their  necks.  On  inquiry  they 
informed  me  that  each  notch  represented  a goat  or 
chicken  promised  to  the  Pi  of  the  forest  in  return  for 
protection  from  the  Tiger.  As  their  slender  means 
did  not^rtnable  them  to  make  a sacrifice  in  advance 
they  were  postponing  the  redemption  of  the  promise 
until  the  next  harvest. 

I was  indiscreet  enough  to  inquire  what  would 
become  of  them  if  by  any  chance  the  vow  was  never 
fulfilled,  but  they  looked  at  me  in  blank  astonishment 
and  indignantly  denied  that  there  could  be  any 
compromise  with  conscience.  One  of  them,  however, 


200 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


took  me  into  his  confidence.  “ I was  unable  to  fulfil 
a certain  vow  during  the  last  harvest,  which  was  a 
particularly  bad  one,  so  instead  of  the  five  chickens 
which  I first  promised  the  Pi  I now  owe  them  one 
goat.  If  the  next  harvest  is  not  better  than  the  last, 
the  goat  will  have  to  be  replaced  by  a pig.” 

It  sometimes  happened  that  when  we  had  broken 
up  our  encampment  and  were  advancing  to  a new 
site  some  particularly  well-inclined  Chief  dispatched 
a warrior-herald  before  us  to  announce  our  arrival 
by  means  of  a notched  stick.  The  contents  of  the 
message  were  such  that  before  we  had-  appeared  the 
rice  necessary  for  our  escort  and  the  paddy  for  our 
horses  had  all  been  prepared. 

I must  add  that  I speak  of  exceptional  occurrences. 
The  rule  was  that  no ‘herald  preceded  us,  or  if  he 
did  his  message  was  of  very  different  tenor.  In 
such  cases,  the  great  majority,  we  could  do  nothing 
but  seize  by  force  of  arms  what  ought  to  have  been 
conceded  with  good  grace. 

The  Moi  regarded  our  written  characters  as  a 
species  of  magical  invention.  Accordingly  the  powers 
thus  attributed  to  the  letters  themselves  were  speedily 
extended  to  the  paper  on  which  they  were  written. 
They  began  to  furnish  themselves  with  a “ Sra,”  or 
sheet  of  paper,  whenever  they  set  out  on  a journey, 
in  the  belief  that  it  would  guarantee  them  against 
delay  or  mishap  en  route.  A courier  would  always 
carry  an  envelope,  generally  empty  and  unaddressed. 
Armed  with  this  talisman  he  was  secured  against  the 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


201 


attacks  of  tigers  and  evil  spirits  and  freed  from  all 
anxiety  as  regards  what  La  Fontaine  has  described 
as  “ bon  souper,  bon  gite,  et  . . . le  reste.” 

This  use  of  notches  as  written  symbols  is  also 
found  among  certain  peoples  of  southern  China. 
Father  Crabouillet  tells  us  something  of  this  in  his 
writings.  In  the  course  of  his  missionary  work  he 
discovered  that  the  natives  are  able  to  represent  by 
these  means  not  only  concrete  objects  but  also  abstract 
ideas.  They  were  familiar  with  the  ideographic 
characters  of  the  Chinese,  yet  they  preferred  to  use 
their  own  enigmatic  system  for  the  transaction  of 
business. 

We  can  only  conclude  that  their  object  is  to 
keep  their  affairs  private  from  their  neighbours  the 
Celestials,  whom  they  have  particular  reason  to 
distrust. 

The  literary  evolution  of  primitive  peoples  follows 
soon  after  their  musical  evolution,  to  which  I have 
already  referred.  In  the  first  stages,  poetry,  song 
and  dance  are  inextricably  associated.  The  spoken 
word  plays  a quite  subordinate  part  in  this  aesthetic 
trinity.  It  serves  to  explain  the  meaning  of  the 
rhythmical  movements  but  cannot  be  dissociated 
from  them.  The  form  of  this  rudimentary  poetry 
is  frequently  a simple  exclamation,  a cry  or  imitative 
call.  The  inter jectional  refrains  which  we  find  to- 
day among  savage  tribes  are  only  the  relics  of 
those  wordless  romances  which  preceded  spoken  verse 
in  the  first  stage. 


202 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


Metre  is  none  other  than  the  outcome  of  man’s 
natural  leaning  to  measured  sounds.  The  verse  of 
primitive  folk  is  accordingly  distinguished  by  the 
shortness  of  its  lines.  There  is  no  rhyme  except 
that  which  results  from  the  combination  of  assonances. 
The  length  of  a line  may  be  used  as  a test  of  the 
standard  of  civilization  to  which  a people  has  attained, 
for  it  only  reaches  appreciable  dimensions  when 
rules  of  metre  and  prosody  have  been  formulated 
and  enforced. 

In  China  there  is  a mass  of  documentary  evidence 
which  throws  light  on  this  process  of  evolution.  The 
line  in  that  country  was  originally  of  four  feet  only, 
and  did  not  attain  to  seven  feet  for  a very  considerable 
period.  In  India  the  Sanscrit  line  is  very  short  in 
the  Rig-Veda  and  gradually  lengthens  in  the  Epics, 
concluding  with  the  dimensions  of  fifteen  syllables 
divided  by  a hemistich,  the  relic  of  an  earlier  period 
in  which  the  line  was  very  short. 

At  the  peril  of  seeming  paradoxical  I have  lingered 
over  the  sense  of  rhythm  among  primitive  peoples 
because  so  many  travellers  have  expressed  surprise 
at  the  immense  impression  which  can  be  produced 
on  a savage  by  uttering  a poetic  phrase  or  merely 
inserting  a line  of  verse  in  ordinary  conversation. 

One  of  our  party,  a poet  in  his  own  way,  frequently 
took  advantage  of  the  impression  thus  produced. 
He  always  addressed  our  coolies  in  verse,  and  though 
his  knowledge  of  the  language  was  only  elementary, 
he  was  better  understood  and  more  speedily  obeyed 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


203  - 


than  others  of  us  who  spoke  the  dialects  fluently. 
He  united  with  this  gift  of  rhyme  a facility  of  meta- 
phor which  was  remarkable.  His  conversation  was 
sown  thick  with  images,  many  of  them  quite  ridiculous, 
but  yet  not  so  absurd  as  to  prevent  even  our 
appreciation  of  them. 

I have  already  remarked  that  in  the  infancy  of 
society  aesthetic  manifestations  were  confined  to 
choral  dances  representing  simple  subjects  of  an 
impersonal  character,  and  no  more  than  the  reflection 
of  the  current  life  and  thought  of  the  group.  But 
in  course  of  time  that  way  of  life  and  thought  became 
profoundly  modified  by  new  influences  and  move- 
ments, resulting  from  conflicts  between  rich  and 
poor,  master  and  slave.  A new  literature  arose 
which  expressed  other  feelings  and  aspirations,  a 
literature  which  found  voice  in  the  popular  artists 
who  invented  a new  profession  in  all  countries.  The 
rhapsodists  of  Greece,  the  scalds  of  Scandinavia, 
and  the  Celtic  bards,  furnish  familiar  examples. 

Everywhere  these  wandering  minstrels  presented 
the  vague  popular  traditions  in  set  forms.  Their 
works  reflect  quite  faithfully  the  movements  and 
aspirations  of  their  own  day,  and  being  transmitted 
by  oral  tradition,  they  form  to-day  a body  of  material 
which  is  virtually  our  only  source  of  information  as 
to  the  folklore  of  primitive  races. 

Accordingly,  no  study  of  a group  can  be  complete 
which  takes  no  account  of  its  legends,  myths  and 
fables ; if  a group  has  no  written  records  they  form 


204 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


our  only  historical  evidence.  It  has  often  been  re- 
marked that  the  non-existence  of  such  records  has 
served  the  purpose  of  improving  the  memories  of 
those  who  have  only  oral  tradition  to  rely  on. 

Recent  research  among  primitive  peoples  in  this 
very  subject  has  demonstrated  that  the  average 
duration  of  the  recollection  of  an  event  is  six  genera- 
tions, or  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  years.  During 
that  period,  if  the  event  is  one  of  importance  but 
yet  in  the  natural  order  of  things  such  as  an  earth- 
quake or  a flood,  or  even  a political  occurrence,  such 
as  a change  of  dynasty  or  a revolution,  its  memories 
will  remain  practically  unmodified.  Of  course  this 
applies  only  to  groups  among  which  the  use  of 
writing  is  unknown.  Otherwise,  the  absence  of 
any  necessity  for  oral  tradition  greatly  diminishes  the 
length  of  its  life.  During  our  expedition  we  had 
many  occasions  to  observe  the  ease  with  which  the 
Moi  Chiefs  recollected  events  long  since  past  and 
generally  forgotten.  Father  Durand  made  the  same 
discovery  during  his  long  residence  in  Annam.  He 
told  me  of  historical  events  in  the  eighteenth  century 
of  which  the  Moi  had  spoken  to  him  with  the  most 
circumstantial  detail.  For  example,  they  remembered 
the  revolt  of  Thang  Khoi  in  1834  as  if  it  had  been 
an  occurrence  of  only  yesterday,  and  recounted  an 
exploit,  long  since  forgotten,  of  two  Cochin-Chinese 
adventurers. 

These  pirates,  some  years  before  the  capture  of 
Saigon,  managed  to  force  the  barrier  and  enter  the 


A Court  of  Trial  ou  an  Annamese  Stage. 


By  the'courtesy  ol]  Vassalle. 

A Group  of  Amateur  Actors  in  Annam.  A Mandarin  of  Annam. 

[To  lace  p.  205. 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


205 


Imperial  palace  under  fire  from  the  guns  of  the 
citadel  of  Hue,  while  the  Emperor  Tu  Due  fled  in 
terror. 

The  Annamites  have  a great  regard  for  this  reten- 
tiveness of  memory  and  their  consistent  hostility 
towards  all  their  neighbours  robs  that  regard  of  all 
taint  of  partiality.  However,  once  the  fact  is  estab- 
lished, it  follows  that  many  legends  founded  on  actual 
occurrences  but  transmitted  orally  from  generation 
to  generation  in  default  of  any  written  record  may 
have  as  much  authority  for  ethnography  as  if  their 
authenticity  had  been  established  by  documentary 
proof.  But  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  imagination 
of  the  Moi  has  equally  played  a part  in  the  com- 
position of  some  of  the  current  stories  which  were 
originally  true  statements  of  fact.  Like  all  other 
peoples  they  have  been  subject  to  those  influences 
which  silently  introduce  elements  of  the  apocryphal 
into  the  well  of  truth.  Their  folklore  exhibits  the 
same  phenomena  which  can  be  studied  at  all  times 
in  similar  groups.  For  example,  they  transform 
the  hero  of  some  particular  locality  into  a hero  of 
the  whole  group,  or,  in  other  words,  make  a national 
property  of  what  is  strictly  a local  possession.  To 
the  same  end  they  substitute  the  name  of  their 
country  for  the  name  of  the  place  where  great  events 
have  taken  place.  In  these  ways  all  get  credit  for 
what  only  the  few  deserve,  and  in  the  end  they  have 
a fine  collection  of  heroes  and  adventures  filched 
from  every  source.  But  in  spite  of  these  alterations, 


2o6 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


the  motive  of  which  seems  to  be  the  ambition  to 
have  more  great  men  and  stirring  deeds  than  their 
neighbours,  it  is  patent  that  these  legends  faithfully 
reflect  the  principal  conceptions  of  these  primitive  folk. 

As  the  prevalent  superstitions  vary  in  different 
localities  it  would  be  absurd  to  suppose  that  all  the 
legends,  myths  and  fables  which  I am  about  to  speak 
of  enjoy  universal  currency.  On  the  contrary,  some 
circulate  in  one  part  of  the  country,  others  else- 
where. But  I have  attempted  in  making  a selection 
to  confine  myself  to  those  which  are  most  widely 
known.  Some  of  them  originated  among  the  Laotians 
or  Annamites.  Very  few  are  of  native  origin,  for  the 
imagination  of  this  group  has  always  been  undeveloped. 

The  biblical  account  of  the  early  history  of  the 
world  has  been  curiously  adapted  and  transformed. 
The  great  deluge,  for  example,  appears  under  the 
following  guise. 

In  the  beginning  a Genius  incarnated  in  a kite 
disputed  with  one  of  his  colleagues  incarnated  in 
a crab,  and  a lively  quarrel  ensued,  in  the  course  of 
which  the  latter  had  his  shell  broken  by  the  beak 
of  the  bird,  an  insult  of  which  he  bears  the  mark 
to-day.  Casting  about  for  some  means  of  revenge, 
the  Crab-Genius  conceived  the  idea  of  raising  the 
waters  of  the  sea  until  they  covered  the  high  moun- 
tain on  which  the  Kite-Genius  was  perched.  Every 
human  being  perished  with  the  exception  of  a young 
couple,  brother  and  sister,  who  saved  their  lives  by 
taking  refuge  in  a huge  pumpkin.  This  original 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


207 


boat  deposited  them  safe  and  sound  on  the  top  of 
the  highest  mountain.  The  rescued  couple  at  once 
sought  far  and  wide  for  any  other  survivors  of  the 
human  race,  but  all  in  vain.  Their  fellow  beings  had 
all  perished.  A tortoise  which  they  met  with 
advised  them  to  marry  to  ensure  the  continuance 
of  the  race.  The  young  man,  horrified  at  the  sugges- 
tion, cut  the  creature  in  pieces  as  a punishment, 
but  the  pieces  quickly  reunited,  a marvel  of  which 
the  tortoise  has  ever  since  borne  the  traces.  The 
couple  then  renewed  their  wanderings  and  soon 
met  a bamboo  which  offered  the  same  advice,  and 
was  treated  in  the  same  way.  Again  the  pieces 
reunited,  and  from  that  day  to  this  the  bamboo  has 
always  had  knots.  Finally,  a Spirit  descended  to 
earth  to  terminate  so  embarrassing  a situation.  He 
offered  the  girl  eight  beans,  promising,  her  that  if 
she  ate  one  each  year  she  would  conceive  on  each 
occasion.  In  delight  at  the  gift  and  the  prospective 
fulfilment  of  all  her  hopes,  she  hastened  to  put  the 
beans  in  her  mouth,  and,  forgetting  her  instructions, 
swallowed  them  all  at  once  ! What  the  Spirit  fore- 
told then  came  to  pass.  She  produced  eight 
children  at  a birth  and  these  founded  the  principal 
human  families. 

The  tradition  of  the  dispersion  of  the  human 
race  is  also  perpetuated.  The  Djarai  Moi,  for 
example,  give  the  following  description  of  the  event. 

“ Our  own  land  was  the  centre  of  the  earth  where 
the  peoples  of  mankind,  having  outgrown  their 


208 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


resources,  built  the  Tower  of  Separation  before 
scattering  over  the  surface  of  the  globe.  The  tower 
was  so  lofty  that  the  topmost  story  could  only  be 
secured  by  bands  of  strong  fibre  which  the  workmen 
fastened  by  clinging  to  them  with  all  their  weight. 
Perched  on  the  very  top  was  one  who  thus  surveyed 
the  whole  expanse  of  earth  spread  out  before  him. 
His  duty  was  to  indicate  to  those  below  the  paths 
which  led  to  the  most  fertile  portions.  After  a 
short  survey  he  called  out  to  the  workmen  who  were 
holding  the  ropes  : ‘ To  the  Eastward  I see  a 
wondrous  plain  washed  by  the  ocean,  to  the  West- 
ward a rich  valley  watered  by  a great  river.’  Before 
he  could  continue,  however,  an  ominous  rumbling 
was  heard,  the  tower  trembled  for  the  space  of  a 
moment,  and  then  fell  to  the  earth  with  a crash, 
burying  him  under  its  ruins.  The  Annamites  and 
Laotians  were  the  unkind  workmen  who  had  all  let 
go  in  their  frantic  haste  to  find  the  prosperous  regions 
so  eloquently  described  ! As  for  the  Moi,  they  were 
far  too  lazy  to  enter  into  an  exhausting  competition, 
so  they  remained  on  the  forest-clad  mountains  which 
no  one  envied  them.” 

The  story  of  Joshua  stopping  the  sun  is  replaced 
by  that  of  a Spirit  exhibiting  the  same  powers. 

“ In  the  beginning  there  dwelt  in  the  land  o 
the  Moi-Bahnar  a valiant  chieftain  named  Diong, 
whom  the  gods  themselves  were  unable  to  subdue 
So  great  was  the  fame  of  his  exploits  that  women 
frequently  deserted  their  husbands  in  order  to  follow 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE  209 

him.  One  of  these  offenders  was  the  wife  of  the 
chief  of  the  Moi-Djarai,  who  resolved  to  punish  the 
author  of  his  wrong,  and  declared  war  on  him.  The 
two  tribes  composed  of  equal  numbers  of  skilled 
warriors  fought  with  the  utmost  desperation,  but 
fortune  finally  favoured  Diong,  who  ended  the  day 
by  slaying  the  injured  husband  with  his  own  hand. 
Firmly  convinced  that  his  triumph  was  only  due  to 
celestial  intervention,  the  victor  begged  the  Spirits 
to  put  back  the  course  of  the  sun  in  order  to  allow 
him  time  to  annihilate  his  foes.  His  prayer  was 
answered,  for  the  gods  drew  back  the  sun  and  started 
it  again  at  midday.” 

Most  of  these  legends  have  been  collected  by  the 
Catholic  missionaries,  whose  work  among  the  people 
of  Bahnar  has  met  with  a large  measure  of  success. 
It  is  possible  that  the  higher  standard  of  education 
to  which  the  people  of  this  region  have  attained  has 
made  possible  the  investigation  of  these  biblical 
stories.  Other  groups,  when  questioned  on  the 
subject,  can  give  no  account  of  their  legends  what- 
ever. I ought  to  say,  however,  that  the  story  of 
the  pumpkin  saving  the  human  race  at  the  time  of 
the  deluge  is  well  known  among  all  the  semi-savage 
peoples  of  Indo-China. 

Sometimes  the  individual  characteristics  of  a group 
are  illuminated  by  a legend  or  fable  which  explains 
their  origin.  For  example,  the  origin  of  the  Moi 
practice  of  filing  the  teeth  may  be  sought  in  a 
Cambodian  fable. 


14 


210 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


When  Buddha  dwelt  among  men  he  was  fed  by 
each  of  his  faithful  disciples  in  turn.  He  visited  the 
Moi  and  after  them  the  Cambodians  and  asserted 
that  the  meats  offered  him  by  the  former  were  much 
inferior  to  those  of  the  latter.  The  reason  for 
the  difference  was  then  made  clear  to  him.  The 
Moi  were  too  lazy  to  pound  the  rice  and  contented 
themselves  with  grinding  it  in  their  teeth.  The 
Master  was  greatly  incensed  at  this  lack  of  respect 
towards  himself  and  condemned  them  to  file  their 
teeth  in  such  a way  that  a repetition  of  the  offence 
would  be  impossible.  Further  they  were  com- 
pelled to  wear  in  their  hair  the  small  sticks  which 
served  for  cooking  utensils  and,  to  add  to  their  shame, 
he  pierced  their  ears  and  forbade  them  to  wear  any- 
thing but  the  plainest  clothing.  The  Moi  found 
these  restrictions  more  than  they  could  bear  and 
they  fled  to  the  mountains,  leaving  the  plains  to 
the  Cambodians  who  dwell  there  to  this  day. 

The  extraordinary  configuration  of  the  regions 
inhabited  by  the  Moi  was  bound  to  give  birth  to 
many  legends  which  would  furnish  them  with  some 
satisfactory  explanation  of  the  phenomenon.  The 
chief  characteristics  of  these  stories  will  be  illustrated 
by  the  following  examples,  which  I have  selected  at 
random. 

The  highest  point  of  the  great  Annamite  chain  is 
a lofty  mountain  with  a curious  needle-shaped  peak. 
The  summit  is  inaccessible,  and  our  surveyors  had  to 
be  content  with  establishing  their  geodetical  station 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


2II 


at  its  foot.  The  peak  is  a well-known  landmark 
and,  according  to  the  Moi,  none  other  than  the  wife 
of  a Spirit,  who  turned  her  into  stone.  In  the 
beginning  of  creation  a company  of  demigods  dwelt 
on  this  spot.  One  day  the  husband  went  to  get  food, 
leaving  his  wife  at  home.  She  took  advantage  of 
his  absence  to  deceive  him,  and  in  the  fulness  of  time 
became  pregnant.  On  his  return  the  Spirit  learned 
of  the  injury  he  had  suffered  and  turned  on  the 
accomplice  who  took  to  flight.  The  husband  gave 
chase,  came  up  with  his  rival  as  he  was  on  the  point 
of  casting  himself  into  a river,  seized  him,  cut  off 
his  head  and  turned  his  corpse  into  a stone. 

Unsatisfied  with  this  act  of  vengeance  the  murderer 
retraced  his  steps  and  likewise  turned  into  stone 
everyone  who  had  assisted  the  flight  of  his  rival.  On 
entering  his  palace  he  observed  a crowd  gathering 
round  his  wife  who,  in  the  throes  of  childbirth,  had 
summoned  a midwife  and  all  her  friends.  The  sight 
maddened  him,  and  with  a wave  of  his  hand  he  trans- 
formed every  living  creature  within  reach  into  a 
mountain.  Even  the  elephants,  which  in  this 
country  serve  as  transport  animals,  did  not  escape 
his  vengeance.  That  is  why  this  massive  group  of 
peaks  is  known  as  “ The  Mother  and  Child,”  a name 
preserved  even  by  our  cartographers. 

Even  more  general  than  legends  are  ballads,  fables 
and  popular  songs.  Some  of  the  chants  which  approxi- 
mate to  liturgical  psalms  are  only  known  to  a few  select 
spirits  who  sing  them  together  on  special  occasions. 

14* 


212 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


Henri  Maitre,  the  commissioner,  has  translated 
one  of  these  rhapsodies  which  he  discovered  in  the 
course  of  his  ethnographical  researches.  A few 
extracts  will  illustrate  the  halting  simplicity  which 
characterizes  these  compositions. 

“ The  Gods  created  the  Earth  and  the  trees.  That 
is  why  men  know  how  to  make  gongs  and  tom-toms 
with  which  they  accompany  their  sacrifices  to  the 
Spirits.  . . . 

“ Men  create  jars  for  spirits  and  the  hollow  bamboo 
tubes  through  which  they  suck  up  the  liquid.  . . . 

“ Parents  bring  children  into  the  world  and  feed 
them  until  they  are  able  to  look  after  themselves.  . . . 

“ Thanks  to  the  protecting  care  of  the  Spirits, 
the  children  grow  up  hardy  and  splendid  like  a tall 
tree  or  a great  river.  . . . 

“ Later,  they  too  will  marry.”  . . . 

By  the  side  of  such  outpourings  with  their  sprinkling 
of  archaic  words  and  their  more  or  less  religious 
flavour  there  are  also  numbers  of  jovial  popular 
songs  which  the  young  men  hum  at  work  or  sing  to 
the  girls  who  catch  their  fancy.  If  the  lady  deigns 
to  reply  these  songs  develop  into  a kind  of  choral 
repartee.  This  practice  is  confined  to  the  Laotians 
and  their  immediate  neighbours. 

The  Laotians  also  still  preserve  the  Court  of  Love, 
which  has  many  features  in  common  with  the  cele- 
brated European  institution  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

At  the  period  of  the  year  when  the  rice  harvest 
has  been  gathered  in  and  work  in  the  fields  is  tern- 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


213 


porarily  suspended  the  chief  occupation  of  the  young 
men  is  to  court  the  girls.  Stages  are  erected 
on  which  the  Laotian  ladies  in  search  of  a husband 
assemble.  At  their  feet  burn  lamps,  byjthe  light  of 
which  every  detail  of  form  or  costume  is  discreetly 
brought  to  the  notice  of  the  swains.  A plate  of  betel 
and  a bamboo  spittoon  pass  from  hand  to  hand. 
Squatting  in  a row  before  their  lady-loves  the  young 
men  compose  verses  in  their  honour,  and  the  ladies 
reply  according  to  the  burden  of  their  hearts.  Each 
couple  keeps  up  the  interchange  of  vocal  repartee 
before  a public  only  too  ready  to  record  its  approval 
when  one  party  or  the  other  scores  a point.  The 
couples  are  not  allowed  to  touch  each  other.  If 
the  burden  of  a song  requires  the  performance  of 
this  act  the  singer  symbolically  touches  himself. 
Both  the  singing  and  acting  are  accompanied  by 
measured  music,  which  adds  to  their  charm. 

The  Malays  also  frequently  improvise  rhapsodical 
poems  called  “ Pantouns,”  in  which  two  persons 
converse  together.  The  Malayan  literary  tourna- 
ments have  acquired  a widespread  reputation. 

The  following  is  an  excellent  example  of  a love- 
poem  sung  by  a Moi  man  and  girl : 

“ Hallo,  pretty  girl.  You  smell  sweeter  than  an 
orchid  ! . . . 

“ Your  legs  and  bosom  are  like  ivory  ! 

“ Your  body  is  so  white  that  it  might  have  been 
shaved  ! . . . 

“ Your  figure  is  as  sinuous  as  that  of  a serpent ! . . . 


214 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


“ If  you  walked  in  the  forest  to  gather  moss  and 
batatas,  I should  wish  to  meet  you  alone  to  offer  you 
some  betel ! (That  being  the  emblem  of  accepted 
love.) 

“ If  you  will  marry  me  I can  give  you  a large  rice- 
bowl,  a warm  coverlet  for  the  cold  nights,  and  an  ox 
from  my  stables  ! . . . 

“ At  night  we  will  lie  on  the  same  mat  as  close 
together  as  the  legs  of  a shackled  elephant  ! ” . . . 

The  girl’s  answer  is  cruel : 

“ If  you  could  give  me  ten  silver  necklaces  and 
five  ropes  of  white  pearls  I would  have  none  of  you 
or  your  offerings,  but  tell  your  brother,  the  swift 
hunter,  that  he  can  have  me  for  a green  banana  ! ” . . . 

I have  already  dwelt  on  some  of  the  superstitions 
which  have  gathered  round  certain  animals,  and  it 
only  remains  to  say  that  there  is  hardly  a creature 
which  is  not  the  subject  of  a legend,  a fable,  or,  at 
least,  a popular  saying.  From  a comparison  of  the 
relative  importance  of  these  legends  or  fables,  it  is 
plain  that  the  Moi  believe  in  a regular  hierarchy  in 
which  each  species  has  its  place.  This  belief  is 
shared  by  the  Annamites,  and  its  existence  was  clearly 
demonstrated  by  the  following  tragic  incident. 

One  morning  one  of  our  engineers,  a man  named 
Petaud,  was  found  crushed  to  death  by  elephants 
while  engaged  in  tachymetrical  operations.  He  was 
quite  unrecognizable  and  it  was  plain  that  one  of 
the  infuriated  monsters  had  flung  him  to  the  ground 
and  the  whole  herd  had  then  stamped  his  body  into 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE  215 

dust.  We  were  quite  unable  to  assign  a cause  for 
this  terrible  catastrophe.  The  only  plausible  ex- 
planation was  that  the  unfortunate  victim  had  been 
so  preoccupied  with  his  observations  that  he  had 
stumbled  into  the  midst  of  a sleeping  herd  and  had 
taken  them  for  rocks.  The  part  of  the  forest  in 
which  he  was  found  was,  in  fact,  studded  with  huge 
granite  boulders,  many  of  which  resembled  elephants 
in  colour  and  form.  Without  loss  of  time  we  set 
to  work  to  clear  the  neighbourhood  of  the  dangerous 
foe.  Many  of  the  monsters  fell  beneath  our  bullets 
and  it  occurred  to  us  to  send  the  feet  to  one  of  our 
countrymen  on  the  coast,  with  a request  to  send 
them  by  an  Annamite  junk  to  Saigon.  We  knew 
of  a naturalist  in  that  town  who  makes  elephants’  feet 
into  stands  for  flower-pots.  Our  discomfiture  was 
complete  when  we  were  informed  that  no  one  would 
undertake  the  carriage  of  the  booty  to  the  coast  at 
any  figure  we  named.  The  following  reason  was 
advanced  for  this  refusal. 

“ The  elephant  is  the  highest  of  the  animals  which 
reign  on  earth,  but  his  powers  can  only  be  exercised 
on  land.  At  sea  the  whale  is  mistress  and  she  is  very 
jealous  of  any  encroachment  on  her  prerogative. 
Accordingly,  if  we  took  any  part  of  an  elephant  into 
her  domain  she  would  manifest  her  displeasure  by 
capsizing  our  vessel.” 

Our  prospective  flower-pot  stands  had  to  wait 
for  the  arrival  of  a European  ship  ! 

Wild  beasts  and,  in  fact,  all  animals  which  may  be 


2i6 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


harmful  to  man  arc  given  high-sounding  titles  by 
the  Moi  in  the  hope  of  tickling  their  vanity  and 
thus  earning  their  gratitude.  On  the  other  hand, 
harmless  creatures,  especially  those  which  cannot  be 
used  for  food  and  are  therefore  useless  to  mankind, 
are  given  names  of  derision  or  contempt.  Further, 
certain  species  whose  wiles  defy  all  attempts  at  capture 
are  considered  as  being  emanations  of  the  spirits 
themselves.  Suppose  a rat  has  the  impertinence 
not  merely  to  avoid  all  the  traps,  but  also  to  defy 
the  Chief  of  the  tribe  and  watch  from  a beam  while 
a jar  is  being  opened.  Its  ordinary  name  is  im- 
mediately transformed.  Henceforth,  everyone  refers 
to  it  as  “ the  gentleman  with  magic  powers.”  The 
same  title  is  extended  to  the  termite  ants  who 
succeed  in  making  a home  in  cooking  utensils  in  spite 
of  all  efforts  to  keep  them  out. 

Other  insects,  such  as  the  spider,  are  considered 
by  their  presence  to  incite  married  persons  to  in- 
fidelity.' Accordingly  a wife  never  goes  to  bed 
without  making  a thorough  search  for  the  malignant 
creature.  If  a spider  fell  from  the  ceiling  between 
husband  and  wife  the  lady  would  know  for  a certainty 
that  her  spouse  had  torn  up  the  marriage  contract. 

Popular  fancy  has  also  fastened  on  certain  products 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  When  the  millet  or  rice 
is  in  flower  no  one  is  allowed  to  pass  by  who  carries  a 
truss  of  hay,  for  these  plants  are  very  sensitive  and 
would  invariably  follow  the  example  of  the  hay, 
which  bears  no  grain. 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


217 


If  a pregnant  woman  were  stupid  enough  to  eat  a 
double  banana  she  would  infallibly  give  birth  to 
twins  whose  fingers  would  be  knotted  together. 

There  are  numbers  of  nursery  tales  for  children, 
many  of  which  bear  strong  traces  of  Hindu  in- 
fluence. The  following  are  good  specimens  : 


The  Rabbit,  the  Tiger  and  the  Elephant 

One  day  the  Rabbit  met  the  Elephant,  who 
looked  very  distressed.  The  small  quadruped  asked 
the  big  one  the  cause  of  his  trouble. 

The  Elephant,  grateful  for  the  sympathetic 
inquiry,  made  reply  : 

“ I have  wagered  my  life  with  the  Tiger  and  lost 
the  wager.  To-morrow  I must  put  myself  at  his 
disposal  and  he  will  eat  me,  but  he  has  given  me  one 
day  in  which  to  bid  farewell  to  my  children.” 

The  Rabbit  thought  a moment  and  then  told 
his  friend  to  take  heart  for  he  had  frequently  found 
a way  out  of  much  more  formidable  complications. 
The  Elephant  believed  in  the  assurances  of  his  friend, 
and  they  separated  after  fixing  a rendezvous  for  the 
next  day. 

The  monster  turned  up  punctually  to  the  moment 
and  found  the  Rabbit  already  waiting  for  him.  The 
Rabbit  told  him  to  lie  at  full  length  on  the  ground. 
When  the  Tiger  was  heard  bounding  through  the 
forest  the  Rabbit  jumped  on  the  Elephant’s  back 
and  began  to  cry  out  at  the  top  of  his  voice  : 


2i8 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


“ I have  just  had  an  elephant  for  my  dinner  but  I 
really  don’t  feel  equal  to  a tiger  for  dessert.” 

Terrified  at  such  a miracle  the  King  of  the  Jungle 
covered  eight  yards  at  a bound  and  vanished  in  a 
twinkling  into  the  depths  of  the  forest. 


The  Tiger  and  the  Tortoise 

One  evening  when  the  Tortoise  was  slowly  walking 
up  a mountain  path  she  was  brusquely  ordered  out 
of  the  way  by  a Tiger  who  wished  to  drink  at  the 
river. 

“ Out  of  my  way,  Tortoise  ! You  are  only  hinder- 
ing me  and  you  know  I can  run  faster  than  you  ! ” 

“ Run  faster  than  I ! ” exclaimed  the  Tortoise 
indignantly ; “ it’s  a lie  ! ” 

“ Will  you  bet  on  it  ? ” queried  the  Tiger. 

“ Certainly.  You  see  these  twelve  hills.  I bet 
you  I will  climb  them  all  before  you.” 

“ Done  ! ” 

As  it  was  then  getting  late  they  agreed  to  postpone 
the  trial  of  speed  to  the  next  day.  The  Tortoise, 
however,  was  not  idle  during  the  night,  but  called 
together  twelve  of  her  sisters,  to  whom  she  gave 
instructions  to  take  up  their  stations  on  the  top  of 
each  of  the  twelve  hills  and  to  pretend  to  the  Tiger 
that  it  was  his  rival  whom  he  found  waiting  for 
him. 

Her  instructions  were  carried  out  to  the  letter 
and  daybreak  found  each  of  the  tortoises  at  her  post. 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


219 


The  race  began  at  once.  The  Tiger  started  off, 
covering  yards  at  each  bound.  When  he  reached 
the  top  of  the  first  hill  he  looked  back  in  contempt 
for  the  Tortoise. 

“ Where  are  you,  Tortoise  ? ” 

“ Here  I am,”  replied  the  first  Tortoise.  “ Don’t 
waste  time  chattering  but  get  on  your  way.” 

Astounded  that  his  competitor  had  displayed  such 
a fine  turn  of  speed  the  Tiger  resumed  the  race 
without  a moment’s  delay.  In  a few  bounds  he 
had  reached  the  next  hill,  only  to  find  (as  he  thought) 
the  Tortoise  waiting  for  him  with  a few  mocking 
words  for  his  slothfulness. 

The  Tiger  lost  heart  and  leapt  forward  in  despera- 
tion, but  the  effort  was  too  much  for  him.  He  was 
soon  out  of  breath  and  collapsed  in  a heap  long  before 
his  goal  was  in  sight. 

The  fable  of  the  Tiger  and  the  Toad  is  very  similar 
to  the  foregoing. 

One  day  the  Toad  said  to  the  Tiger  : 

“ Will  you  run  a race  with  me  ? ” 

“ Don’t  be  a fool,”  replied  the  Tiger. 

“ Come  on  all  the  same.  I feel  myself  possessed 
by  an  invisible  force  and  I am  sure  I can  beat  you.” 

“ Very  well  then,  but  what’s  to  be  the  stake  ? ” 
They  agreed  that  the  winner  should  eat  the  loser. 
A tortoise  who  chanced  to  pass  by  was  selected  as 
judge  and  performed  the  office  of  starter.  The 
Tiger,  with  his  customary  astuteness,  claimed  that 


220 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


he  need  only  touch  the  starting-post  with  the  end 
of  his  tail.  The  Toad  was  up  to  this  and  promptly 
caught  hold  of  his  rival’s  tail  and  refused  to  be  shaken 
off  during  the  race.  When  within  a few  paces  of 
the  goal  the  Tiger  suddenly  stopped  short  and  the 
Toad  shot  over  his  head.  He  was  greatly  chagrined 
to  see  the  Toad  thus  arrive  before  him  and  com- 
plained bitterly  to  a monkey  who  had  witnessed  the 
contest. 

“ I saw  it  all,”  the  monkey  said.  “ The  Toad 
owes  his  success  to  a trick.  He  caught  hold  of  your 
tail  and  it  was  your  sudden  stop  that  precipitated 
him  in  front  of  you.  Try  to  get  him  to  run  another 
race  with  you,  and  this  time  be  careful  to  tie  a stone 
to  your  tail  to  prevent  a repetition  of  his  underhand 
behaviour.” 

The  Tiger  was  delighted  with  this  advice  and 
invited  the  Toad  to  a second  trial  of  speed,  offering 
his  wife  as  an  additional  prize. 

The  monkey  induced  the  Toad  to  agree  and  both 
watched  the  Tiger  start  off.  He  had  not  gone  far, 
however,  before  he  plunged  into  a stream  which 
crossed  the  course.  The  weight  of  the  stone  dragged 
him  down,  and  in  spite  of  his  struggles  he  perished 
miserably. 

The  monkey,  tortoise  and  Toad  were  highly 
delighted. 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


221 


The  Toad  and  the  King  of  Water 

In  the  beginning  of  things  a drought  of  several 
months  completely  dried  up  a marsh  in  "which  a Toad 
dwelt.  By  reason  of  this  catastrophe  the  Toad  could 
not  bring  up  his  young,  so  he  decided  to  make  a 
complaint  in  person  to  the  King  of  Water. 

To  give  greater  weight  to  his  plea  he  begged  the 
Fox,  the  Bear  and  the  Tiger  to  go  with  him. 

The  journey  was  long  and  wearisome,  but  at  length 
the  four  animals,  marching  in  single  file,  left  behind 
them  the  narrow  path  which  leads  to  heaven,  and 
reached  the  gate. 

A tom-tom  was  hung  there,  and  the  Toad  banged 
it  vigorously  to  announce  his  presence,  while  his 
companions  discreetly  drew  aside. 

Hearing  the  noise,  the  King  of  Water  sent  a genius 
to  find  out  who  the  new-comer  was. 

“ It  is  only  a miserable  toad,”  the  messenger 
reported.  “ What  must  I do  with  him  ? ” 

The  King  ordered  the  cocks  to  put  the  intruders 
to  flight,  but  the  Fox  flew  at  them  and  made  a 
mouthful  of  them. 

The  King  ordered  the  dogs  to  seize  and  punish 
the  Fox,  but  then  it  was  the  Bear’s  turn  to  give  them 
his  deadly  embrace.  The  King  became  more  and 
more  angry  and  ordered  his  archers  to  shoot  the 
Bear  with  poisoned  arrows. 


222 


INTELLECTUAL  LIFE 


With  one  bound  the  Tiger  laid  low  the  warriors 
before  they  could  even  stretch  their  bows,  and  torn 
by  his  fangs  and  claws  they  soon  took  to  their  heels. 

The  King,  seeing  himself  thus  at  the  end  of  his 
resources  and  tired  of  war,  had  the  Toad  brought 
into  his  presence,  and  inquired  the  object  of  his  visit. 

“ I salute  thee  humbly.  Sire,”  said  the  Toad,  “ and 
would  make  an  urgent  supplication  before  thee. 
The  great  heat  hath  turned  the  ground  to  stone, 
since  thou  hast  forgotten  to  send  rain  for  many  weary 
months.  I can  no  longer  feed  my  children  who  are 
on  the  point  of  death  through  thy  neglect.” 

Touched  at  the  story,  the  King  acknowledged  his 
remissness  and  at  his  command  a refreshing  shower 
immediately  fell  upon  the  earth,  which  soon  revived. 

Since  that  fortunate  interview,  whenever  there  is 
a drought  men  hear  the  toad  croaking  his  petition 
and  rain  falls  without  further  delay. 

It  will  be  noticed  in  these  fables  how  careful  the 
Moi  is  to  give  the  Tiger,  his  dreaded  foe,  the  role  of 
the  vanquished.  They  also  show  signs  of  education 
in  the  habits  of  the  animal  world.  It  is  just  because 
the  croaking  of  the  toad  coincides  with  a change  in 
the  atmosphere  that  the  Moi  attributes  to  that 
plaintive  sound  the  power  to  bring  down  rain. 

Is  it  not  equally  true  that  the  illustrious  chanticleer 
had  only  to  utter  his  morning  call  to  cause  the  sun  to 
rise  ? 


BOOK  II 

THE  CHAM 


/ 


CHAPTER  I 


THE  CHAM 

General  characteristics  of  the  Cham — A Mohammedan  group — Its  place 
among  ancient  civilizations — Social  life — Dress  and  ornaments — The 
calendar — Rites  accompanying  the  construction  of  a house,  a cart,  and 
a junk — ^Agriculture  and  industry — Medicines — The  use  of  narcotics 
by  criminals  to  stupefy  their  victims. 

J HAVE  now  concluded  my  investigation  of  the 
complex  of  barbarous  peoples  who,  in  spite 
of  the  proximity  of  civilized  races,  have  preserved 
almost  intact  the  rudimentary  instincts  and  ferocious 
customs  of  primitive  man.  No  account  of  these 
regions,  however,  would  be  complete  which  omitted 
all  references  to  the  Cham,*  a curious  Mohammedan 
people,  formerly  very  powerful,  whose  conversion  to 
that  faith  took  place  during  the  zenith  of  their 
power  and  prosperity.  The  traces  of  this  one-time 
pre-eminence  and  the  Cham  themselves  are  fast 
disappearing. 

The  group  belongs  to  the  Malayo-Polynesian  race, 
of  which  the  parent  stock  seems  to  have  inhabited 
the  region  of  Annam.  The  Cham  were  formerly 
the  rulers  of  the  powerful  Empire  of  Champa,  which 

• Pronounced  Tiam,  Tiampa.  Ch=tia. 

225 


15 


226 


THE  CHAM 


occupied,  as  far  as  we  can  judge  from  the  some- 
what conflicting  and  unsatisfactory  evidence,  the 
eastern  coast-line  of  Indo-China  proper.  Marco 
Polo  tells  us  of  the  fertility  of  this  region  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  It  may  even  be  that  this 
country  is  the  self-same  Zabai  of  which  Ptolemy 
speaks. 

Nominally  Islam  is  the  official  religion  of  this 
people  who  seem  to  have  passed  through  previous 
stages  of  Animism  and  Brahminism.  The  ancient 
faiths  were  too  well  established  to  be  uprooted  by 
the  Moslem  conquerors  and  the  outcome  is  a strange 
conglomeration  in  which  the  ancestral  superstitions 
frequently  profit  at  the  expense  of  the  precepts  of 
the  Koran. 

The  last  survivors  of  this  once  flourishing  empire 
(in  all  perhaps  130,000  souls),  are  now  confined  to 
the  province  of  Binh-Thuan  in  Annam.  At  the 
time  of  its  downfall  before  the  rising  power  of  the 
Annamites  many  of  the  conquered  preferred  exile 
in  Cambodia  and  Siam  rather  than  humiliation  and 
servitude  in  the  land  of  their  birth. 

The  opportunity  of  observing  and  noting  the 
customs,  beliefs,  and  institutions  of  the  Cham  was 
furnished  by  the  preliminary  survey  which  preceded 
the  construction  of  the  railway  from  Phantiet  to 
Phanrang.  During  the  whole  of  this  time  our  party 
was  quartered  among  this  interesting  people  and 
had  many  opportunities  of  developing  friendly,  and 
even  intimate,  relations. 


THE  CHAM 


227 


We  cannot  pretend  to  have  been  the  first  to  do  so, 
for  previous  to  our  arrival  two  eminent  philologists, 
MM.  Aymonier  and  Cabaton,  had  made  a searching 
examination  of  the  manuscripts  in  the  possession  of 
the  priests  and  published  two  singularly  exhaustive 
studies  on  the  subject.* 

The  Cham  have  preserved  almost  unmodified 
their  physical  and  moral  characteristics,  largely  by 
means  of  their  law  which  prohibits  intermarriage 
with  any  other  people.  For  this  reason  they  exhibit 
a marked  contrast  to  the  Annamites. 

The  average  height  of  a man  is  about  five  feet 
six  inches,  that  of  a woman  five  feet.  The  skin  is 
somewhat  coarse  and  varies  between  a dark  brown 
and  a shade  of  reddish  brown  such  as  a European 
acquires  after  long  exposure  in  a tropical  climate. 
The  auburn  or  black  hair  is  fine  and  brittle,  while  the 
growth  of  beard  and  moustache  is  more  generous 
than  among  the  Annamites.  Partial,  or  even  total, 
albinism  is  not  uncommon. 

The  lips  and  facial  outline  offer  resemblances  to 
those  of  the  European.  This  is  not  remarkable,  for 
of  all  Asiatics  the  Cham  and  the  Malays  exhibit 
the  nearest  approach  to  the  Western  type. 

In  spite  of  a certain  tendency  to  be  hollow-backed 
the  women  are  of  fine  presence,  elegant,  and  graceful 
in  their  movements.  Their  carriage  in  walking  is 
particularly  remarkable  and  can  be  compared  with 


* Les  Tjames  et  leurs  religions,  by  Aymonier. 
Cham,  by  A.  Cabaton. 


Nouvelles  Recherches  sur  les 

15* 


228 


THE  CHAM 


that  of  the  Egyptians.  The  women  of  both  these 
races  habitually  carry  heavy  objects  either  on  their 
shoulders  or  heads  and  can  only  maintain  them  in 
equilibrium  thanks  to  the  most  perfect  ease  in  their 
movements. 

If  the  vigour  of  this  race  has  not  deteriorated 
during  the  last  centuries  it  is  certain  that  their 
fertility  has  diminished.  For  some  time  the  birth- 
rate has  remained  stationary.  Retrogression  is 
exhibited  in  other  ways  also,  for  although  their 
ancient  civilization  must  have  been  highly  advanced, 
little  trace  of  it  remains  in  their  present  low  level  of 
intellect.  All  ambition  to  renew  the  glories  of  the 
past  has  long  since  evaporated.  The  ruins  of  many 
monuments  tell  of  the  ancient  splendours,  but  the 
living  representatives  are  quite  content  to  recount 
the  triumphs  without  any  desire  to  emulate  them. 
Is  it  incapacity  or  merely  universal  apathy  ? The 
indolence  of  the  Cham  is  notorious.  Even  the  build- 
ing of  their  houses  they  leave  to  their  neighbours  the 
Annamites. 

The  first  time  I entered  a Cham  village  I was 
amazed  at  the  absence  of  all  vegetation.  Shade  is 
one  of  the  prime  necessities  of  life  in  this  country, 
where  the  fierce  rays  of  the  sun  pour  down  pitilessly 
all  day  and  make  it  painful,  and  even  dangerous,  for 
a man  to  be  exposed  to  them  without  cover.  My 
colleagues,  who  had  been  established  in  the  place 
for  some  time,  soon  explained  that  as  long  as  we 
remained  among  the  Cham  we  might  as  well 


THE  CHAM 


229 

relinquish  vain  hopes  of  finding  a house  which  would 
not  be  exposed  to  the  sun. 

This  inconvenient  defect  is  the  outcome  of  a popular 
superstition  that  the  shade  of  a tree  exerts  a baneful 
influence  over  the  house  beneath  it.  A somewhat 
similar  belief  prevails  in  Cambodia,  where,  however, 
the  minister  of  evil  is  alleged  to  be  not  the  shade 
but  the  roots  of  trees  which  penetrate  below  a 
house. 

However,  the  lack  of  shade  was  by  no  means  the 
greatest  discomfort  we  were  called  on  to  face.  There 
were  many  others. 

A native  habitation  comprises  as  many  miniature 
houses  as  there  are  households  (and  almost  even 
members)  in  the  family.  Every  girl  of  marriageable 
age  has  a special  room.  The  married  members 
have  another,  while  a third  is  reserved  for  the  boys 
who  have  attained  puberty.  Naturally,  the  larger 
the  family  the  smaller  are  the  separate  rooms,  and  so 
the  apartment  assigned  to  us  was  usually  little  more 
than  a box  with  space  for  only  a small  folding-bed, 
the  solitary  piece  of  furniture.  These  low,  thatched 
huts  were  scattered  about  a kind  of  compound  bounded 
on  each  side  by  a flimsy  palisade  of  bamboos  secured 
together  by  thongs  of  cane. 

The  costume  of  the  men  consists  of  a skirt  and  a 
very  long  robe.  The  women  wear  a large  piece  of 
cloth  wrapped  round  to  form  a rude  skirt.  Gay 
colours  are  somewhat  restricted,  white  and  white 
striped  with  red  and  green  being  the  most  popular. 


330  THE  CHAM 

For  bodice  they  have  a clinging  dark-green  tunic 
open  at  the  throat. 

Their  taste  in  jewellery  is  remarkably  restrained. 
The  rich  wear  silver  or  gold  buttons  in  their  ears. 
Of  the  poorer  classes  some  confine  their  personal 
embellishment  to  copper  nails  and  others  wear  a plait 
made  of  coloured  threads  which  falls  over  their 
shoulders.  We  sometimes  noticed  bracelets  on  the 
wrists  of  some  of  the  girls.  This  ornament  serves  to 
remind  its  wearer  of  the  temporary,  vow  of  chastity 
which  she  has  taken  to  guard  her  against  some  danger 
or  cure  an  illness. 

Others  again  wear  a necklace  of  large  amber  beads 
from  which  hangs  the  Tamrak,  a kind  of  amulet 
which  wards  off  the  powers  of  evil.  This  indis- 
pensable talisman  consists  of  a small  cylinder  of  lead 
on  which  a priest  has  traced  mystic  characters  with  a 
sharp-pointed  instrument. 

Both  sexes  keep  their  hair  long  and,  like  the  Anna- 
mites,  twist  it  into  a knot  at  the  back.  The  men 
wear  as  head-dress  either  a large  turban  or  sometimes 
merely  a kerchief.  Pockets  are  unknown,  but  two 
purses  hung  from  a long  girdle  provide  an  excellent 
substitute. 

In  early  times  the  Cham  princes  set  up  their 
royal  residence  and  the  seat  of  government  in  Phan- 
rang.  In  the  seventeenth  century  their  office  was 
still  hereditary,  but  the  Court  of  Hue  reserved  the 
right  of  investiture.  In  the  nineteenth  century 
successive  invasions  undermined  the  authority  of 


THE  CHAM 


231 


those  potentates  and  all  appointments  to  ad- 
ministrative offices  were  made  by  the  Annamite 
conquerors,  who  made  their  selection  among  the 
local  aristocracy. 

The  Cham  of  Cambodia  are  all  Mohammedans, 
but  of  those  of  Annam  about  two-thirds  have  re- 
mained Brahmins.  Their  countrymen  of  the  later 
faith  call  them  “ Kaphirs  ” (infidels),  and  reserve 
to  themselves  the  title  of  “ Bani  ” (sons  of  the  faith). 
Nevertheless,  there  is  perfect  toleration  between  the 
followers  of  the  two  religions.  The  priests  honour 
with  their  presence  the  ritual  ceremonies  of  the 
group  whose  beliefs  they  do  not  share  and  neither 
party  attempts  to  make  converts  of  the  adherents 
of  the  other. 

The  calendar  of  the  Cham  is  partly  lunar  and 
partly  solar.  The  beginning  and  end  of  each  month 
coincides  with  a new  moon.  As  in  the  Hindu 
calendar,  this  lunar  month  has  a light  half  which 
culminates  in  the  full  moon  and  a dark  half  which  is 
terminated  by  the  new  moon.  The  duodenary  cycle 
is  employed  for  the  purpose  of  measuring  time. 
This  system  was  invented  by  the  Turks,  but  the 
Chinese  have  been  mainly  instrumental  in  securing 
its  adoption  throughout  the  Far  East.  Each  of  the 
twelve  years  of  which  it  is  composed  is  called  by  the 
name  of  some  animal — Rat,  Buffalo,  Tiger,  Hare, 
Dragon,  Snake,  Horse,  Goat,  Monkey,  Cock,  Dog, 
Boar. 

The  year  begins  in  April-May  and  comprises 


232 


THE  CHAM 


twelve  lunar  months  of  thirty  and  twenty-nine  days 
alternatively.  They  are  numbered  from  one  up  to 
ten,  but  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  have  special  names. 
Every  three  years  a month  is  added,  and  it  may  well 
be  imagined  to  what  difficulties  and  disputes  this 
proceeding  gives  rise  in  the  absence  of  agreement 
between  the  villages. 

There  are  seven  days  in  the  week.  Their  names  are 
borrowed  from  the  Sanscrit  and,  like  ours,  represent 
a planet.  Each  day  has  twelve  hours,  twice  the 
length  of  ours,  of  which  the  first  begins  at  cockcrow. 
The  night  consists  of  five  watches. 

These  are  the  component  parts  of  the  system  in 
which  it  is  quite  simple  to  calculate  any  date.  For 
example,  a document  may  be  dated  thus  : “ Signed, 
Monday  the  fourth  day  of  the  light  half  of  the  fifth 
month  of  the  year  of  the  Dragon.” 

It  is  probable  that  in  early  times  the  Cham  com- 
puted time  by  a system  similar  to  that  of  the  ancient 
Javanese,  a people  with  whom  they  maintained  close 
political  and  commercial  relations,  as  witness  several 
alliances  between  members  of  the  two  reigning  houses. 
The  Javanese  calendar  comprised  a week  of  five  days, 
a month  of  six  weeks,  a year  of  ten  months,  each  with 
its  special  tutelary  deity. 

Life  among  the  Cham  is  greatly  complicated  by 
rules  of  etiquette,  of  which  the  most  stringent  regulate 
the  relations  between  those  of  different  age  and  rank. 
Age  is  regarded  with  special  reverence  and  an  old 
man,  whatever  his  social  condition,  is  always  addressed 


THE  CHAM 


233 

as  Uncle  or  Grandfather  by  his  juniors  in  years.  An 
inferior  addresses  his  superior  as  Elder  Brother. 

As  in  Cambodia  methods  of  greeting  are  various. 
If  a man  meets  a friend  of  superior  station  a due 
and  proper  sign  of  deference  is  to  adjust  his  girdle 
or  cross  the  cloth  which  fulfils  the  functions  of 
trousers.  If  he  is  carrying  an  umbrella  he  will  hold 
it  forward  towards  the  person  he  thus  wishes  to 
honour.  Then  a conversation  will  take  place.  During 
the  whole  time  he  will  take  the  greatest  care  to  avoid 
swinging  his  arms,  the  most  flagrant  act  of  dis- 
respect. To  guard  against  even  an  unwitting  breach 
of  this  regulation  a well-bred  Cham  will  clasp  his 
hands  together,  a precaution  which  prevents  any 
movement  of  the  arms.  If  a woman  desires  to 
address  a request  to  a Mandarin  or  a European,  her 
preliminary  salutation  is  a complicated  manoeuvre 
which  recalls  the  Andjali  of  the  Hindus  and  cannot 
be  executed  without  preparation.  She  takes  off  the 
turban  which  keeps  her  hair  in  position,  wraps 
it  round  her  like  a shawl,  drops  on  her  knees  and 
finally  prostrates  herself  three  times  in  succession 
at  full  length  on  the  ground.  In  the  interval  between 
each  prostration  she  rubs  her  face  with  her  hands. 

In  India,  where  etiquette  takes  a different  form, 
no  one  should  appear  in  public  without  an  ornament 
of  some  kind  in  the  hair ; if  the  head  is  completely 
unadorned  it  signifies  cither  mourning  or  absolute 
retirement  from  the  world.  This  rule  seems  to  be 
of  very  ancient  origin  and  to  have  been  kept  alive 


234 


THE  CHAM 


largely  by  sculpture.  It  is  remarkable  that  all  the 
statues  of  divinities  in  the  temples  have  an  ornament 
of  some  kind  in  the  hair. 

It  is  not  merely  the  number  and  variety  of  the 
rules  of  etiquette  which  distinguish  the  Cham  from 
other  groups  of  similar  culture.  They  are  equally 
remarkable  for  the  multiplicity  of  the  rites  which 
accompany  each  act,  however  insignificant,  of  their 
daily  life.  I can  only  recount  here  some  of  the  more 
important  ones  which  present  features  of  their  own. 

An  accidental  fire  destroyed  the  native  house  which 
a village  chief  had  placed  at  our  disposal,  during  the 
survey  in  that  neighbourhood.  We  offered  to  rebuild 
it  on  our  own  lines,  with  the  latest  improvements. 
Far  from  expressing  any  gratification  at  the  suggestion 
he  showed  the  greatest  surprise  and  displeasure  and 
was  more  than  contented  with  the  very  modest  sum 
we  gave  him  with  which  to  do  the  work  himself. 
Little  did  we  imagine  the  trials  in  store  for  us.  We 
were  provided  with  temporary  accommodation  in  a 
barn,  without  shade  of  any  sort.  The  ill-fitting 
planks  let  in  as  much  sun  as  rain  and  wind,  and  we 
were  all  impatience  to  see  the  completion  of  our 
future  dwelling.  Time,  however,  counts  for  next 
to  nothing  in  the  Far  East,  and  for  nothing  at  all 
among  the  Cham.  Within  a few  days  it  was  patent 
that  a long  delay  was  inevitable  and  we  were  soon 
resigned  to  the  prospect  of  waiting  indefinitely  while 
the  rebuilding,  impeded  by  innumerable  daily  cere- 
monies, proceeded  from  stage  to  stage. 


THE  CHAM 


235 


First  of  all,  a place  which  is  to  be  hallowed  by  the 
performance  of  so  many  rites  must  be  enclosed  within 
a light  palisade  as  holy  ground.  For  this  purpose 
dead  wood  is  chosen,  for  it  must  never  be  forgotten 
that  the  shade  cast  by  foliage  forbodes  evil.  In  this 
enclosing  wall  an  opening  is  made  to  give  passage 
to  the  divinities  of  the  five  cardinal  points.  Without 
their  help  it  would  be  vain  for  man  to  enter  upon  so 
grave  an  undertaking. 

The  area  having  thus  been  marked  out,  the  next 
step  is  to  determine  its  centre.  For  this  purpose  a 
cord  is  requisitioned.  The  spot  thus  fixed  serves 
as  a point  by  which  to  find  the  positions  for  the 
columns  which  are  to  support  the  building.  A hole 
is  dug  to  furnish  a foundation  for  the  north-east 
column.  Into  this  the  owner  throws  a magic  amulet 
with  the  most  elaborate  precaution.  The  talisman 
consists  of  a sheet  of  lead  on  which  certain  mystic 
characters  are  engraved.  Only  after  this  solemn 
consecration  is  the  column  fixed  in  position.  The 
day’s  work  is  then  concluded.  Next  day  a similar 
performance  accompanies  the  establishment  of  a 
second  column.  One  day  one  column  is  more  than 
we  can  stand,  and  after  every  form  of  persuasion  and 
argument  the  easy-going  architect  consents  to  conse- 
crate the  remaining  columns  on  the  same  day. 

Alas  ! When  the  framework  of  the  roof  is  complete 
religious  observance  requires  that  an  amulet  shall  be 
inserted  at  every  point  of  contact  with  the  beams  of 
the  walls  ! Then  again  there  is  a prolonged  and 


THE  CHAM 


236 

bitter  controversy  over  the  choice  of  thatch.  Our 
Annamite  coolies  have  been  foolish  enough  to  collect 
a supply  of  bulrushes  which  are  considered  to  exert 
a malignant  influence ! The  offending  material  is 
immediately  burnt  and  a new  delay  begins.  At 
length  the  work  is  completed  and  the  house  stands 
ready  for  immediate  occupation.  Nothing  seems  to 
prevent  our  entry  into  possession  and  at  daybreak 
we  move  across  with  our  baggage  and  establish  our- 
selves each  in  his  diminutive  cabin.  Hardly  has  the 
unpacking  begun  than  the  owner  rushes  in  with 
hands  upraised  in  horror.  In  our  haste  we  have 
unwittingly  committed  almost  every  conceivable  act 
of  sacrilege  ! 

A cat  should  have  been  the  first  to  enter  the 
new  abode,  and  after  it  the  Master,  and  he  alone 
may  declare  the  building  open.  There  is  no  help 
for  it.  We  hastily  put  back  our  belongings  and 
tumble  the  boxes  out  into  the  yard.  We  remain  as 
unwilling  spectators  of  a ceremony  which  we  are 
assured  is  positively  the  last.  Our  host  prostrates 
himself  on  the  ground  at  the  exact  spot  which  he 
selects  for  his  own  bed.  He  then  rises  and  intones  a 
chant  proper  to  the  occasion,  which  consists  of  the 
recital  of  all  the  places  to  be  avoided  when  selecting 
a site  for  a new  dwelling. 

“ I will  flee  far,”  says  the  Holy  Canticle,  “ from 
the  haunts  of  the  White  Ant.  I will  turn  aside 
from  the  dwelling-places  of  demons  and  evil  spirits. 
Sloping  places  I will  shun.  I will  sound  clayey 


THE  CHAM 


237 

soil.  In  short  I will  never  be  found  where  evil  is 
to  be  apprehended.” 

And  the  pious  architect  concludes  the  last  of  the 
rites  and  leaves  us  to  the  place. 

Irritated  though  we  were  by  the  interminable 
proceedings  which  had  postponed  our  occupation 
of  the  promised  land,  it  is  only  fair  to  say  that  at  all 
times  we  displayed  the  greatest  interest  in  other 
ritual  ceremonies  which  involved  no  personal  dis- 
advantages to  ourselves.  Each  day  provided  us  with 
new  matter  for  investigation  and  speculation. 

Undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  curious  proceedings 
is  the  consecration  of  a cart  before  its  entry  into 
active  service.  The  manufacture  of  these  vehicles 
is,  perhaps,  the  most  flourishing  industry  of  the 
Cham.  Their  reputation  is  almost  world-wide  and 
thoroughly  deserved.  The  industry  dates  from  a 
very  early  period  and  was  brought  into  prominence 
during  the  fourteenth  century  by  the  demand  of 
the  Hindu  princes  for  beautiful  cars  for  wedding 
gifts  to  their  brides.  The  dedication  takes  place 
with  the  greatest  pomp  and  is  not  complete  without 
a sacrifice.  First  the  wheelwright  sprinkles  his  new 
material  with  holy  water,  then  takes  it  to  the  river 
bank.  There  he  subjects  it  to  a severe  scouring, 
after  which  it  is  considered  as  purified.  Next  coloured 
tapers  are  fixed  on  the  uprights  and  finally  he  draws 
his  knife  and  cuts  out  the  framework. 

“ Cart,”  he  cries,  “ woe  betide  you  if  ever  the 
fancy  take  you  not  to  roll  your  best.” 


THE  CHAM 


238 

The  Cham  prefer  the  banks  of  a river  or  the  shores 
of  a lake  as  a site  for  their  settlements.  They  fre- 
quently build  whole  villages  on  huge  floating  rafts, 
but  the  staple  industry  of  these  lake-dwelling  groups 
is  the  building  of  light  boats  and  racing  skiffs.  These 
are  made  from  trees  and,  as  long  narrow  trunks  are 
indispensable,  the  favourite  medium  is  the  diptero- 
carpus,  which  is  plentiful  in  these  regions.  The  tree 
is  felled  and  then  hollowed  to  its  full  length,  the  ends 
being  shaped  to  a tapering  point.  To  obtain  the 
necessary  elasticity  the  parts  are  exposed  to  a wood 
fire  before  the  moulding  process  is  commenced. 
Every  stage  of  the  proceedings  is  accompanied  by 
prayers  and  sacrifices  such  as  we  have  seen  marking 
the  dedication  of  the  wagon. 

It  is  general  knowledge  that  in  Cambodia  and 
the  region  of  Laos  canoe  races  figure  in  all  public 
festivals  of  importance.  These  regattas  attract  a 
large  number  of  spectators  of  all  nations  and  the  Cham 
naturally  take  a conspicuous  part. 

The  boats  display  quite  a high  standard  of  artistic 
skill.  On  the  inside  they  are  decorated  with  red 
lacquer.  On  the  outside  they  are  black  and  gold. 
Some  idea  of  the  size  appears  in  the  fact  that  they 
are  sometimes  built  to  accommodate  fifty  paddlers. 

Every  king,  prince,  bonze  and  noble  has,  or' should 
have,  his  private  boat  and  liveried  crew,  for  the 
races  proper  are  preceded  by  an  aquatic  procession, 
when  each  boat  passes  before  the  dais  on  which  is 
seated  the  President  of  the  Festivities.  Nothing 


THE  CHAM 


239 


could  be  more  elating  than  the  sight  of  the  beautiful 
rhythmical  movements  of  the  paddlers  swinging  for- 
ward with  mechanical  precision  until  their  foreheads 
almost  touch  their  knees.  These  voluntary  sailors 
furnish  an  example  of  discipline  which  might  well 
be  followed  in  high  places. 

Agriculture  among  the  Cham  is  limited  to  the 
cultivation  of  a few  ricefields  and  the  growth  of 
tobacco,  cotton  and  pea-nuts.  Cattle-raising  does 
not  include  that  of  cows  and  pigs,  the  flesh  of  which 
is  forbidden  by  religion.  Other  industries  are  bee- 
keeping, the  export  of  the  wax  for  religious  purposes, 
and  the  manufacture  of  torches  of  resin  which  And  a 
ready  market  among  the  Annamites.  I have  already 
mentioned  other  specialities. 

Agriculture,  commerce  and  industry  show  not 
the  least  sign  of  expansion.  The  Cham  is  not 
ambitious,  much  less  inventive  and  exhibits  no 
trace  of  envy  of  his  progressive  Annamite  conquerors, 
whose  industrious  activity  is  a vivid  contrast  to  the 
proverbial  lethargy  of  Orientals.  Unhappily  the 
indifference  of  the  Cham  to  material  prosperity  is 
a recent  development.  In  the  great  days  of  Empire 
they  must  have  been  a very  active  and  intelligent  race 
and  even  to-day  we  And  relics  of  their  inventive  skill 
among  their  Medicine  Men. 

These  specialists  jealously  guard  the  secret,  which 
has  been  handed  down  by  tradition,  of  certain  medi- 
cines to  which  Europeans  have  had  recourse  on 
occasion.  More  than  once  during  our  expedition 


240 


THE  CHAM 


we  were  glad  to  invite  the  good  offices  of  the  native 
herbalists  when,  prostrated  by  dysentery,  shivering 
with  fever  or  weakened  by  anaemia,  we  had  exhausted 
the  resources  of  our  own  pharmaceutical  arsenal. 
The  native  doctors  are  as  skilful  as  the  Chinese  in 
utilizing  various  simples  and  are  quite  familiar  with 
the  medicinal  properties  of  certain  animal  products. 

We  have  known  cases  in  which  an  unnameable  brew, 
of  which  the  principal  constituents  were  the  shells  of 
beetles,  the  scales  of  snakes,  and  the  parings  of  stags’ 
antlers  and  bullocks’  hooves,  effected  a quicker  cure 
than  all  our  European  drugs,  for  all  their  scientific 
names.  The  pharmacopoeia  of  the  Cham  is  certainly 
an  offshoot  of  that  of  the  Chinese.  It  comprises  a 
list  of  all  manner  of  remedies  for  moral  as  well  as 
physical  disorders. 

Camphor,  a substance  universally  appreciated, 
appears  also  among  the  medicines  of  the  Cham.  They 
use  a certain  oil  which,  when  impregnated  with 
camphor,  acts  as  an  anaesthetic  by  evaporating  and 
producing  a freezing  sensation.  It  forms  a kind  of 
liniment  and  is  kept  in  a small,  brightly  coloured 
glass  flask,  which  is  stoppered  with  a cork  of  wax  to 
prevent  evaporation. 

Wax  is  also  used  to  make  capsules,  about  the  size 
of  a pigeon’s  egg,  to  hold  drugs  and  other  medicinal 
substances  which  must  be  kept  from  contact  with  the 
air. 

Cholera,  which  is  endemic  throughout  this  region, 
is  treated  by  taking  pills  made  up  of  a mixture  of 


THE  CHAM 


341 


sandalwood,  the  bark  of  the  mangostan,  and  eagle- 
wood.  Eaglewood,  of  which  I shall  have  much  to 
say  later  on,  is  well  known  as  an  excellent  tonic. 
Popular  superstition  endows  it  with  powers  so  remark- 
able that  a single  piece  could  effect  an  immediate 
cure. 

Most  of  the  brews  or  broths  are  prepared  by  de- 
coction rather  than  by  infusion  and  the  operation 
should  take  place  over  a slow  fire,  which  makes  them 
more  potent.  Their  effect  is  extremely  violent,  and 
in  Europe  we  should  unhesitatingly  classify  them  with 
the  group  of  remedies  popularly  known  as  “ horse 
pills.” 

Among  the  most  potent  I might  mention  the  gall 
of  animals  which  is  often  used  to  produce  the  effect 
of  an  emetic. 

At  one  time  the  Cham  sorcerers  used  human  bile 
as  well  as  that  of  animals.  This  human  bile  was  use- 
less unless  taken  from  a living  subject,  and  conse- 
quently murders  without  number  were  committed 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  it.  Its  reputation  as  a 
talisman  was  universal.  It  was  said  that  any  man 
who  rubbed  himself  with  it  became  invulnerable. 
Of  course  it  was  inevitable  that  a warrior  should 
become  invincible  when  he  was  certain  that  his 
victory,  thanks  to  his  supernatural  protection,  was  a 
foregone  conclusion.  The  King  himself  had  no 
doubts  as  to  the  efficacy  of  this  talisman  and  before 
going  into  battle  ordered  his  elephants  to  be  sprayed 
with  it.  His  special  emissaries,  who  enjoyed  the 

16 


242 


THE  CHAM 


name  of  Jalavoi  (“  Stealers  of  human  bile  ”),  drew 
their  host  of  victims  from  every  quarter,  and  even 
to-day  the  memories  of  their  horrid  activities  evoke 
a shudder. 

Happily  those  evil  days  have  departed.  Human 
bile  is  no  longer  used  either  for  protective  or  medi- 
cinal purposes.  It  emains  only  as  the  subject  of 
legend. 

Besides  this  special  and  curious  emetic  the  Cham 
produce  the  same  effect  by  certain  mechanical 
processes  the  originality  of  which  merits  detailed 
description. 

When  a sick  man’s  stomach  seems  overladen  with 
bile  and  the  medicine  man  wishes  to  empty  it  com- 
pletely, he  stuffs  a rag  soaked  in  urine  and  other  evil- 
smelling substances  into  the  patient’s  mouth.  He 
rams  it  down  as  far  as  it  will  go  and  then  quickly  with- 
draws it.  Physical  aversion  and  the  irritation  of  the 
glottis  produced  by  a foreign  body  immediately 
provoke  a spasm  of  sickness.  No  doubt  some  milder 
emetic  would  have  been  equally  successful. 

I frequently  doctored  the  Cham  and  I can  bear 
witness  that  they  make  the  best  of  patients.  They 
took  ipecacuanha,  castor-oil,  or  sulphate  of  soda,  as 
if  they  enjoyed  them.  When  they  came  again  they 
often  brought  me  a present  of  a little  candle  in  a 
curious  candlestick  made  from  the  banana-plant.  I 
learnt  later  that  it  was  the  custom  to  bring  an  offering 
of  some  kind  in  lieu  of  fee  to  the  native  doctors. 

Suicide  is  very  uncommon  in  these  regions,  where 


THE  CHAM 


243 


the  means  of  life  are  within  the  reach  of  all,  passions 
easily  mastered,  and  an  easy-going  philosophy  is 
practised  from  the  cradle.  The  few  who  find  life 
not  worth  living  leave  it  with  the  help  of  opium 
which  they  mix  with  vinegar. 

At  present  the  native  authorities  throughout 
Indo-China  have  taken  no  steps  to  regulate  the 
manufacture  and  sale  of  poisons.  It  is  quite  usual 
for  the  most  virulent  of  these  to  be  sold  publicly 
in  the  open  market,  and  it  must  be  admitted  that 
any  regulations  would  probably  be  ineffective  to 
stop  the  trade.  Nature  in  Asia  has  always  been 
lavish  ^vith  toxic  substances.  Even  if  the  sale  of 
these  were  prohibited,  anyone  could  find  as  many 
as  he  wished  in  the  nearest  forest.  This  abundance 
is  undoubtedly  responsible  for  the  large  and  increas- 
ing number  of  murders  by  poison  which  distinguish 
the  regions  inhabited  by  the  Cham.  We  ourselves, 
isolated  in  the  bush,  had  to  take  the  most  elaborate 
precautions  to  prevent  fatalities  of  this  kind. 

On  our  arrival  in  the  country  we  were  forewarned 
of  the  danger  by  the  French  resident  magistrate  of 
the  province.  He  laid  special  stress  on  the  risks 
run  by  young  bachelors  who  attempted  any  inti- 
macies with  the  native  girls.  The  seducer,  it 
appears,  is  marked  out  for  destruction,  even  if  he  has 
only  yielded  to  the  blandishments  of  the  woman. 
Further,  many  of  the  Cham  poisons  only  work  slowly 
and  the  mischief  they  cause  in  the  system  is  frequently 
taken  for  disorders  which  follow  anaemia  and^  other 

16* 


244 


THE  CHAM 


illnesses,  to  which  foreigners  in  this  climate  are 
peculiarly  liable.  One  of  my  colleagues  died  from 
an  attack  of  what  we  believed  to  be  malaria.  We 
all  feel  now  that  if  an  autopsy  had  been  made  we 
should  probably  have  discovered  that  what  we  thought 
was  cachexia  was  the  effect  of  poison. 

Besides  being  familiar  with  the  nature  and  use 
of  poisons  the  Cham  are  also  expert  in  concocting 
stupefying  drugs  and  narcotics  of  all  kinds.  They 
often  poison  the  air  of  a room  in  which  a patient  is 
lying  by  blowing  stupefying  vapours  through  hollow 
canes  inserted  in  the  wattled  walls.  The  effect  of 
these  fumes  is  to  make  the  victim  sleep  more  heavily 
and  the  criminals  take  advantage  of  this  circumstance 
to  rob  him  at  their  leisure. 

I had  a vivid  personal  experience  of  this  diabolical 
procedure.  One  evening  I arrived  with  my  escort 
at  a house  which  our  coolies  had  built  specially  for 
us  and  where  we  were  to  stay  several  weeks.  The 
furniture  consisted  of  nothing  more  than  a bamboo 
bedstead  supporting  a mattress  of  cotton  wadding. 
My  room  was  very  narrow  and  the  seven  cases  which 
contained  my  instruments  and  cooking  utensils  were 
all  the  furniture  I needed  in  addition.  I told  my 
boy  to  push  two  of  these  cases  under  the  bed  in 
order  to  save  space.  We  had  been  marching  all 
day  under  a tropical  sun  and  I flung  myself  on  the 
mattress  and  fell  asleep  at  once.  I awoke,  according 
to  habit,  at  about  four  in  the  morning  and  was 
surprised  to  feel  myself  so  cramped  that  I could 


THE  CHAM 


245 


hardly  move.  To  add  to  my  astonishment  I could 
not  find  my  matches  which  I always  kept  within 
reach.  The  case  which  I had  placed  to  serve  as  a 
bedside  table  had  likewise  disappeared. 

With  great  effort  I rose  from  bed  and  stumbling 
at  each  step  managed  to  get  out  of  the  house.  My 
sole  garment  was  my  pyjamas,  for  my  clothes  had 
followed  the  matches.  It  was  stiU  dark  and  I soon 
collided  with  an  obstacle  which  proved  on  investi- 
gation to  be  one  of  the  cases.  I was  somewhat 
alarmed  and  called  for  my  servants.  No  one 
answered.  A feeling  of  overpowering  drowsiness 
overcame  me  and  I had  just  time  to  get  back  to  my 
bed  before  I fell  asleep  again.  When  morning  came 
my  orderly  came  in  to  announce  that  six  out  of  the 
seven  boxes  were  scattered  about  the  outskirts  of 
our  camp.  Locks  had  been  forced  and  all  my  papers, 
instruments,  photographic  plates  and  prints,  and 
wallets  ruthlessly  thrown  out  after  obvious  examina- 
tion. It  was  plain  that  the  burglars  had  been  hunting 
for  bank-notes.  Fortunately  I had  no  money  in  the 
cash-box.  I had  left  the  few  thousand  piastres  which 
constituted  our  reserve  with  a colleague,  so  the  total 
haul  did  not  amount  to  more  than  two  silver  bangles 
and  a few  gewgaws,  which  together  were  not  worth 
more  than  ten  piastres. 

As  for  the  seventh  case,  it  contained  the  whole  of 
our  supplies,  and  its  disappearance  left  us  with  nothing 
but  the  impressions  of  our  journey  to  breakfast  on. 

That  evening,  while  clearing  the  thickets  quite 


THE  CHAM 


246 

six  kilometres  from  our  camp,  our  coolies  came  upon 
the  missing  case.  It  was  almost  intact.  Only  one 
box  had  been  opened  and  it  bore  upon  its  label  a 
sketch  of  the  sucking-pig  it  contained.  As  swine’s 
flesh  is  abhorred  by  the  Cham  I can  only  conclude 
that  we  owed  the  recovery  of  our  portable  larder  to 
that  happy  chance. 

Two  years  later  a second  attempt  of  the  same 
kind  and  not  less  audacious  was  perpetrated  upon 
me.  I was  at  Hanoi,  residing  in  a house  situated 
in  a narrow  avenue  and  next  to  the  barracks.  It 
was  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season  and  a violent 
storm  was  raging.  I was  sleeping  on  the  first  floor, 
and  one  of  my  Tonkinese  orderlies,  a hardy  young 
bachelor,  stationed  himself  at  the  bottom  of  the  stairs 
to  guard  me.  I had  allowed  another  to  bring  his 
family  into  the  house  and  the  family,  including  its 
real  members,  friends  and  acquaintances,  turned  out 
to  comprise  eleven  persons.  In  return  for  this  con- 
cession they  arranged  to  mount  guard  in  turn.  It 
will  be  acknowledged  that  I was  thus  not  alone  in  the 
desert ! 

It  must  have  been  about  midnight  and  I was 
dozing  lightly  (being  prevented  from  sleeping  by 
feverishness),  when  I suddenly  noticed  that  my 
reading-lamp  outside  the  mosquito-net  was  lit.  It 
occurred  to  me  that  I could  not  have  been  so  foolish 
as  to  leave  it  lit  and  I distinctly  remembered  putting 
out  the  light  when  I got  into  bed.  I sat  up  to  rouse 
my  senses  and  heard  a slight  noise  in  the  next  room. 


THE  CHAM 


247 


I was  out  of  bed  in  a moment  just  in  time  to  catch 
a parcel  of  clothing  which  was  evidently  thrown  at 
me  to  trip  me  up.  By  the  light  from  the  reading- 
lamp  I distinctly  saw  a man  perfectly  naked,  his 
body  shining  as  if  he  had  just  had  a bath  in  oil.  I 
remembered  in  a flash  that  the  Annamite  robber 
always  take  this  precaution  to  make  capture  more 
difficult.  Before  I could  snatch  my  revolver  the 
burglar  had  displayed  his  ape-like  agility  by  leaping 
through  the  window  and  vanishing  in  the  darkness. 

I called  up  my  men,  but  they  only  told  me  they 
had  heard  nothing.  I confess  with  shame  I lost 
my  temper.  Suspecting  those  whom  I had  so  im- 
prudently harboured  of  complicity  in  the  plot  I 
hunted  from  the  house  all  except  my  usual  staff. 
I enjoyed  such  consolation  as  was  afforded  by  the 
sight  of  the  silhouettes  of  the  defaulting  watchmen 
cowering  in  the  pelting  rain.  Any  remorse  I ex- 
perienced quickly  vanished  when  I made  inquiries 
later  ! 


CHAPTER  II 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE 

Traces  of  the  matriarchal  system  in  the  conception  of  the  family — The 
" Karoh  ” — Circumcision — Precautions  against  seduction — Rites  in- 
cidental to  betrothal,  marriage,  birth  and  infancy. 

JT  is  well  known  that  the  ancient  matriarchal 
system  of  government  and  ownership  still 
flourishes  among  certain  peoples  who  inhabit  the 
peninsula  of  the  Ganges  and  some  groups  of  Malayo- 
Polynesian  origin.  In  this  system  man  belongs  to 
an  inferior  order  of  creation.  All  political  and 
social  authority  is  exercised  by  woman  and  she  alone 
can  possess  and  inherit.  This  veritable  triumph  of 
feminism  might  have  been  expected  to  produce 
results  far  more  disastrous  than  has  been  the  case. 
Proof  that  life  under  such  circumstances  can  be 
both  possible  and  tolerable  is  furnished  by  the  history 
of  the  Malays  of  the  Negri  Sambilan  (British  Malaysia), 
which  is  little  more  than  a monotonous  record  of 
good  fortune  and  prosperity. 

The  system  is  frequently  accompanied  by  the 
institution  of  polyandry  in  which  the  husband* 

*48 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE  249 

cohabit  in  turn  with  the  common  wife  who  has 
herself  selected  them. 

Now  the  institutions  of  both  the  Cham  and  the 
Cambodians  show  traces  of  descent  from  an  earlier 
organization  of  which  the  matriarchal  system  was 
the  distinguishing  feature.  On  no  other  hypothesis 
can  we  account  for  some  striking  facts.  Family  is 
traced  through  the  mother.  The  children  take  her 
name,  adopt  her  religion  if  they  are  the  issue  of  a 
mixed  marriage,  and  remain  her  property  in  case 
of  divorce.  Inheritance  descends  in  the  female  line 
alone.  A woman  is  the  principal  figure  in  many  of 
the  domestic  ceremonies  and  she  retains  at  all  times 
the  right  to  select  her  husband. 

The  time  at  which  girls  pass  from  infancy  to 
puberty  (when  they  are  at  once  considered  of  marriage- 
able age)  is  celebrated  by  a curious  ceremony  called 
the  “ Karoh,”  which  is  doubtless  derived  from 
that  precept  of  the  Koran  which  prohibits  a repu- 
diated or  divorced  woman  from  entering  upon  a 
new  union  until  after  a retirement  extending  over 
three  menstrual  periods.  The  festival  lasts  two 
days  and  the  proceedings  are  under  the  personal 
supervision  of  the  Ong  Gru  (High  Priest)  himself, 
who  is  assisted  by  a number  of  acolytes. 

Two  huts  of  boughs  and  leaves  are  constructed 
specially  for  the  occasion.  One  is  destined  to  serve 
as  dormitory  to  the  girls  of  the  village  whose  puberty 
is  to  be  officially  recognized.  The  other  is  to 
accommodate  the  numerous  audience  which  always 


250  SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE 

gathers  to  witness  the  accomplishment  of  the 
rite. 

At  the  first  sign  of  daybreak  the  young  neophytes 
advance  in  a group  towards  the  High  Priest.  Each 
wears  her  gayest  robes  and  her  most  precious  jewels. 
Her  hair  falling  freely  on  her  shoulders  is  crowned 
with  a mitre.  One  by  one  they  bow  reverentially 
before  the  officiating  minister  who  places  on  their 
lips  a grain  of  salt,  offers  a cup  of  pure  water,  and 
then  cuts  a piece  of  hair  from  their  foreheads.  This 
last  action  signifies  that  the  girls’  reputation  is  un- 
sullied. If  the  contrary  is  demonstrated  by  ocular 
proof  the  piece  of  hair  will  be  taken  not  from  the 
forehead  but  from  the  back  of  the  neck.  This 
constitutes,  both  among  the  Cham  and  the 
Cambodians,  a mark  of  infamy. 

A one-year-old  baby,  carried  in  the  arms  of  an  old 
man,  is  the  object  of  the  same  rites. 

The  girls  thus  initiated  now  retire  to  the  place 
assigned  to  them,  obviously  to  carry  out  the  semblance 
of  withdrawal  from  the  world.  During  their  absence 
the  priests  take  a hearty  meal,  the  remains  of  which 
are  distributed  to  the  faithful.  About  midday  the 
girls  return,  this  time  with  their  hair  twisted  into  a 
knot  on  their  necks,  a patent  indication  that  the  age 
of  marriage  has  been  reached.  Relations  and  friends 
join  in  offering  them  gifts  to  celebrate  the  happy 
event.  A generous  feast  follows  to  which  are  invited 
all  who  have  taken  any  part  in  the  proceedings,  and 
shortly  after  the  girls  enter  into  their  new  sphere. 


Royal  Elephants  in  Cambodia. 


A Buddhist  Procession  carrying  Offerings  to  a Distant  Pagoda. 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE 


251 


The  High  Priests  say  that  the  “ Karoh  ” is  in 
essence  a symbol.  The  moon,  a feminine  divinity, 
attains  her  full  perfection  only  at  the  fifteenth  day. 
In  the  same  way  the  “ Karoh  ” must  be  celebrated 
as  nearly  as  possible  in  a girl’s  fifteenth  year  when 
her  development  is  complete. 

Up  to  the  time  of  her  consecration  in  this  manner 
a girl  is  “ taboo,”  and  all  sexual  relations  with  her 
are  strictly  prohibited. 

The  Cambodians  have  very  similar  rites  and  regula- 
tions. Before  attaining  the  age  of  marriage  a girl  is 
regarded  as  one  of  the  spouses  of  Indra,  the  King  of 
the  Gods,  and  in  virtue  of  this  exalted  station  no 
man  dare  cultivate  any  intimate  relations  with  her. 
Immediately  on  the  occurrence  of  her  first  menstrua- 
tion she  “ enters  into  the  shade,”  that  is,  takes 
refuge  under  her  mosquito-net  and  withdraws  from 
the  world  altogether  for  a period  which  varies  between 
five  and  a hundred  days.  As  long  as  the  sun  shines 
the  recluse  may  not  even  leave  her  couch,  but  occa- 
sionally an  eclipse  procures  her  a temporary  release 
from  her  gaol.  No  man  may  approach  her,  for  she 
must  not  be  exposed  to  the  temptation  of  looking  at 
a male.  Her  diet  is  strictly  prescribed,  fish  and  meat 
being  prohibited,  and  in  any  case  she  is  restricted 
to  one  meal  a day,  taken  between  sunrise  and  midday, 
after  the  manner  of  the  bonzes. 

This  compulsory  seclusion  is  a terrible  hardship, 
for  an  open-air  life  is  almost  a necessity  in  these 
tropical  climates  where  the  heat  is  overpowering.  It 


252 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE 


is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  therefore,  that  the  termina- 
tion of  the  imprisonment  is  an  occasion  for  great 
rejoicing.  “Leaving  the  shade,”  as  this  f^e  is 
called,  is  frequently  marked  by  the  lacquering  of  the 
girl’s  teeth,  an  operation  which  is  accompanied  with 
all  manner  of  rites  and  is  preceded  by  a special  dedi- 
catory ceremony. 

Regulations  which  seem  to  aim  at  secluding  girls 
at  the  time  they  attain  puberty  are  not  peculiar  to 
Indo-China.  Thus  the  Vai  of  Liberia  cloister  their 
girls  at  the  age  of  ten  in  a place  called  “ Sandy,” 
which  is  hidden  away  in  the  depths  of  a great  forest. 
The  recluses  are  considered  dead  to  their  family  who 
are  not  allowed  to  see  them.  Their  only  visitors 
are  a few  old  women,  their  only  occupations  minor 
domestic  duties  and  initiation  into  the  mysteries  of 
marriage.  If  a betrothal  is  arranged  during  this 
period  the  girl  is  liberated  on  the  appearance  of  the 
first  signs  of  puberty. 

If  we  are  to  beheve  legend  (and  legend  is  often 
worthy  of  belief),  both  in  Denmark  and  Siberia  the 
same  period  in  a girl’s  life  is  preceded  by  a similar 
retirement.  Frazer  cites  several  instances  which 
dispel  all  doubt  on  the  subject. 

The  rite  of  circumcision,  or  rather,  the  rite  of 
simulated  circumcision,  among  the  Cham  Bani  only 
takes  place  when  the  boys  are  in  their  fifteenth  year. 
This  ceremony  is,  in  fact,  purely  symbolical. 

Armed  with  a wooden  knife  the  officiating  priest 
makes  a pretence  of  performing  the  act  after  which 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE  253 

he  gives  the  novice  his  ceremonial  name,  which  is 
always  taken  from  the  Arabic  calendar  and  is  sure 
to  be  either  Ali,  Ibrahim,  or  Mahomet.  The  ac- 
quisition of  this  religious  surname  does  not  prevent 
a boy  from  using  his  unredeemed  name  in  ordinary 
life. 

The  ceremony  known  as  the  “ Entry  into  Religion  ” 
should  take  place  at  about  the  age  of  five,  but  in 
practice  it  is  always  reserved  until  the  age  of  puberty 
though  never  delayed  until  after  marriage.  It  will 
be  remembered  that  the  custom  of  postponing  cir- 
cumcision characterized  the  Persians  also. 

The  Cham  have  a saying  that  you  might  as  well 
leave  an  elephant  among  the  sugar  canes  as  leave  a 
man  alone  with  a girl.  The  proposition  may  be 
sweeping  but  receives  enough  illustration  to  make  it 
plausible. 

However  that  may  be,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
no  sexual  relationships  are  prohibited  except  those 
which  do  not  sooner  or  later  contemplate  marriage. 
If  a girl  is  seduced  and  the  consequences  of  her 
action  begin  to  make  themselves  evident  she  is  at 
once  put  under  arrest.  Her  ankles  are  secured  by 
thongs  of  buffalo  hide ; with  these  marks  of  ignominy 
she  appears  before  the  Council  of  Notables.  There 
she  is  adjured  to  reveal  the  author  of  her  undoing. 
If  she  gives  the  name  of  the  seducer  he  is  compelled 
to  marry  her  and  pay  a fine  by  way  of  compensation 
to  her  parents.  This  fine  is  the  “ Price  of  Shame  ” 
and  invariably  substantial.  If,  however,  the  girl 


254  SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE 

refuses  to  divulge  the  name  of  her  seducer  a sentence 
of  fifty  strokes  with  a cane  is  passed,  an  extremely 
heavy  penalty.  Before  the  punishment  is  actually 
inflicted  a hole  is  dug  in  the  ground  and  the  sufferer 
made  to  lie  at  full  length  with  her  stomach  in  it. 
This  is  a precaution  to  prevent  an  abortion. 

As  soon  as  a girl  has  found  the  man  of  her  choice 
her  parents  pay  an  official  visit  to  those  of  her  for- 
tunate husband-designate.  They  take  with  them  two 
cakes  and  some  betel.  If  the  young  man  tastes 
this  it  is  a sign  that  he  accepts  betrothal  and  an 
engagement  follows. 

A curious  custom  in  this  country  is  that  the  con- 
summation of  the  marriage  does  not  coincide  with 
its  celebration.  To  do  so  would  be  to  court  the 
malevolence  of  the  powers  of  evil ! Cohabitation  is 
the  first  step  in  the  proceedings.  In  this  way  the 
new  household  saves  all  wedding  expenses  and  it  is 
by  no  means  infrequent  that  the  children  are  old 
enough  to  take  part  in  the  festivities  by  the  day 
fixed  for  the  official  celebration  of  the  nuptials. 

The  marriage  takes  place  in  the  evening  in  a hut 
specially  built  for  the  occasion.  Hand  in  hand  the 
happy  pair  walk  on  mats  from  their  own  dwelling  to 
the  place  appointed  for  the  f^te.  Indeed  it  is  a 
most  important  part  of  the  rites  that  their  feet 
shall  not  come  into  contact  with  the  bare  ground. 
Their  garments  are  of  white  cotton  and  unhemmed, 
resembling  in  this  respect  the  mourning  clothes 
worn  by  the  Annamites.  The  girl  enters  the  house. 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE 


255 

leaving  her  partner  on  the  threshold  where  stands 
the  priest  who  is  to  bless  their  union. 

A dialogue  ensues  between  the  minister  and  the 
man. 

“ Prince  AJi,”  asks  the  former,  “ what  are  your 
gifts  to  the  Princess  Fatima,  your  future  spouse  ? ” 

“ O Lord  Mahomet,  I bring  her  a silver  ring, 
two  talismans  for  her  neck,  a necklace  of  amber,  a 
fertile  rice-field,  and  two  bullocks  trained  to  the 
plough.” 

With  these  words  the  husband  gives  the  ring  to 
the  priest  who  blesses  it  and  hands  it  to  his  two 
acolytes,  who  bear  it  away  to  place  on  the  finger  of 
the  bride. 

She,  invisible  behind  the  door  of  the  house,  receives 
the  two  messengers  who  question  her  on  her  desires. 
If  she  gives  her  consent  to  the  marriage  she  is  im- 
mediately led  to  her  husband  who  escorts  her  in 
solemn  procession  to  their  new  home.  Before 
entering,  however,  the  man  throws  three  betel 
leaves  on  the  ground  and  crushes  them  one  after 
another  with  his  foot. 

A white  cloth  is  thrown  over  the  nuptial  couch 
and  the  married  pair  take  their  places  side  by  side 
upon  it.  The  deacons  join  their  hands  and  sprinkle 
holy  water  over  them.  Next  several  candles  are 
lit,  the  pair  receive  official  benediction,  and  at  length 
find  themselves  alone. 

The  rites,  however,  are  not  yet  concluded,  for  the 
woman  gravely  rolls  up  a quid  of  betel  which  she 


256  SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE 

puts  into  the  mouth  of  her  husband.  In  return 
he  takes  off  part  of  his  clothing  to  make  a cover- 
ing for  her.  They  then  leave  the  house  and  fall 
at  the  feet  of  the  priests  and  their  parents.  Their 
friends  seize  an  early  opportunity  of  proclaiming  in 
a loud  voice  the  gifts  they  offer,  while  a secretary 
draws  up  the  hst  to  prevent  misunderstanding. 

The  proceedings  terminate  with  a monster 
banquet.  The  man’s  family  provide  the  meat  and 
drinks  while  the  woman’s  are  responsible  for  the  rice 
and  cakes. 

In  Cambodia  the  Cham  allow  a disappointed  suitor 
to  prevail  over  the  opposition  of  his  loved  one’s 
family  by  executing  the  following  mock  manoeuvres. 

He  waits  until  nightfall  and  seizing  the  moment 
when  the  girl’s  door  is  open  to  make  his  entry  into 
the  house,  clasps  her  in  his  arms  and  throws  about 
them  both  a shawl  brought  for  the  purpose. 

After  this  elaborate  pretence  of  rape  the  family 
have  no  choice  but  to  withdraw  their  opposition  and 
allow  the  match  to  proceed.  They  never  fail,  however, 
to  exact  vengeance  from  the  mock  ravisher  in  the 
shape  of  fearful  abuse  and  a more  or  less  substantial 
fine. 

The  women  make  very  faithful  wives,  so  much  so 
that  cases  of  adultery  are  rare.  Normally  this 
crime  is  punishable  with  death,  but  in  practice  the 
sentence  is  always  commuted  to  a fine,  sometimes 
accompanied  by  whipping. 

Besides,  every  facility  is  afforded  for  the  dissolution 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE 


257 


of  the  union  on  the  ground  of  incompatibility  of 
temperament.  Divorce  is  easy.  The  woman’s  right 
to  select  her  husband  is  paired  with  the  right  to  get 
rid  of  him  at  will  or  change  him  for  another.  In 
this  case  she  herself  keeps  the  family  dwelling  and 
the  lion’s  share  of  the  property. 

Although  the  religion  of  Mahomet  permits  the 
possession  of  four  wives,  in  practice  the  Cham  have 
insufficient  means  to  provide  for  more  than  one. 
Accordingly,  polygamy  is  exceptional,  the  expense 
being  prohibitive. 

Certain  prohibitions  are  too  remarkable  to  be 
passed  over  in  silence. 

Both  the  Brahminist  and  the  Mussulman  Cham 
abstain  from  sexual  relations  on  Mondays,  as  being 
the  day  of  the  week  on  which  Allah  was  born. 

During  pregnancy  the  women  take  the  greatest 
care  to  avoid  a certain  kind  of  Javanese  banana  for 
fear  of  giving  birth  to  a monster  which  will  one  day 
turn  and  torment  them. 

The  rites  accompanying  birth  are  materially  the 
same  as  those  of  the  Moi.  There  is  the  same 
“ Accouchement  at  the  Fire,”  to  use  the  expression 
in  vogue  in  the  country.  It  means  that  a fire  is 
kindled  by  the  woman’s  couch  from  the  beginning 
of  the  accouchement  to  the  time  she  is  allowed  to  leave 
her  bed,  seven  days  after  the  birth.  This  fire  is  kept 
carefully  guarded  by  the  matrons  with  a “ ring  ” of 
cotton  thread.  They  also  leave  a huge  lighted  candle 
at  the  side  to  ward  off  evil  spirits. 


17 


258  SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE 

When  the  mother  is  about  again  the  midwife 
puts  out  the  fire  and  plants  an  iron  stake  in  the 
middle  of  the  ashes.  These  she  collects  with  the 
greatest  care  and  bears  them  off  with  religious  fervour 
to  deposit  at  a fork  of  the  nearest  road  in  the  vicinity. 
They  form  a little  heap  on  the  top  of  which  she 
places  a stone.  Then  she  lays  a quid  of  betel  on 
this  improvised  altar. 

I was  extremely  curious  for  a long  time  as  to  the 
meaning  of  these  pious  erections  which  I saw  at 
every  cross-road,  but  no  one  dared  nor  cared  to  give 
me  any  information.  Those  whom  I interrogated 
took  refuge  in  evasion  and  turned  the  conversation. 
I might  have  remained  for  ever  in  ignorance  had 
not  the  Annamites  proved  more  communicative 
some  time  later.  I then  learned  that  in  popular 
superstition  cross-roads  are  the  favourite  haunts  of 
spirits,  souls  in  torment,  ghosts,  and  other  beings 
whose  influence  is  baneful. 

The  Cham  are  extremely  fond  of  their  children 
and  spare  no  pains  to  keep  them  amused.  Indeed, 
t neir  affection  goes  the  length  of  leaving  them  in 
complete  ignorance  of  soap  and  water,  an  omission 
tor  which  the  babies  are  duly  grateful.  It  is  especially 
gratifying  to  the  benevolent  spirits  if  the  mother 
smears  her  child’s  face  with  a mixture  of  flour  and 
saffron  a substance  the  yellow  colour  of  which  meets 
with  the  particular  approval  of  the  deities  whose 
own  visages  are  of  that  colour  if  we  are  to  credit 
tradition.  On  the  other  hand,  the  mother  who  has 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE 


259 

been  visited  by  a bad  dream  covers  her  baby  with 
soot  to  hide  it  from  evil  spirits. 

The  natural  consequence  of  these  precautions  is 
that  the  young  Cham,  like  the,  young  Moi,  grow  up 
in  a condition  of  filth  which  is  aggravated  by  the 
onslaught  of  mosquitoes  and  the  appearance  of 
innumerable  sores.  Further  they  are  extremely 
liable  to  gastro-enteritis  due  to  their  parents’  repre- 
hensible practice  of  stuffing  them  with  rice  until 
their  small  stomachs  are  stretched  taut  like  a drum. 

Throughout  the  Far  East  the  kiss  is  replaced  by 
a kind  of  snort  applied  to  the  back  of  the  neck  just 
behind  the  ear.  The  children  are  particularly  fond 
of  this  type  of  demonstration  for  they  burst  into 
shouts  of  laughter  whenever  their  mothers  relieve 
their  maternal  feelings  in  this  manner.  If  the  child 
grows  up  in  spite  of  his  parents’  apprehensions,  at 
about  the  age  of  six  months  he  receives  a name  which 
is  considered  to  sum  up  his  prospects  in  life.  Thus 
a fine  chubby  boy  will  be  called  Peace,  Amber 
or  Gold.  A small,  weakly  girl  will  receive  the  name 
of  Discord,  Pillage  or  Bat.  But  suppose  this  last 
child  survives  the  early  years  and  her  infantile  dis- 
orders, at  about  the  age  of  twelve  her  name  of  reproach 
is  exchanged  for  one  of  more  happy  meaning  for 
she  has  passed  the  age  at  which  the  spirits  are  allowed 
to  exercise  a baneful  influence.  In  spite  of  this 
mode  of  rehabilitation,  however,  the  parents  usually 
forget  to  change  the  name  and  her  old  soubriquet 
clings  to  her  through  life.  This  at  all  events  is 

17* 


26o  social  and  family  life 

some  explanation  for  the  curious  fact  that  in  searching 
the  historical  records  of  the  Cham  we  are  always 
coming  across  kings  rejoicing  in  the  unfortunate 
titles  of  “ Typhus  the  Third,”  and  “ Cholera  the 
Fourth.” 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  Aryans  considered 
the  name  as  forming  part  of  a man’s  nature.  The 
Hindus,  too,  believe  that  it  exercises  a profound 
influence  over  the  destinies  of  its  bearer.  For 
example,  the  Laws  of  Manu  enjoin  that  a man 
shall  not  marry  a woman  who  bears  the  name  of  a 
serpent,  a barbarous  race,  a slave,  or  any  ugly 
object. 

Among  the  Cham  of  Cambodia  every  child  under- 
goes the  operation  known  as  “ Molot,”  the  “ Hair- 
cutting,” a rite  which  has  much  in  common  with  the 
“ Tonsuring  ” of  the  Brahminist  Hindus  and  the 
non-Mussulman  natives  of  Cambodia.  It  even  bears 
some  resemblance  to  the  ceremony  of  Christian 
baptism  as  it  was  observed  in  the  days  of  the 
early  Church  under  the  name  given  to  it  by  the 
Early  Fathers  of  “ Regeneration  of  the  Soul.”  Both 
centre  round  the  rite  of  purification  with  holy  water 
and  both  show  the  neophyte  in  that  same  robe  of 
spotless  white  which  is  the  symbol  of  the  pure  life 
on  which  he  enters. 

A Hindu  legend  relates  that  Siva  himself  instituted 
this  ceremony  when  he  baptized  his  grandson,  the 
child  of  Genesa.  It  took  place  on  the  holy  moun- 
tain ol  Keylasa  in  the  centre  of  a marvellous  island 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE 


261 


inhabited  by  spirits,  and  secured  from  the  intrusion 
of  mortals  by  a great  lake  filled  with  a liquid  on 
which  nothing  could  float. 

An  odd  day  and  year  is  chosen  for  the  celebration 
of  the  rite.  If  the  novice  is  of  illustrious  parentage 
a wooden  erection  is  put  up  and  painted  to  resemble 
the  legendary  Mount  Keylasa.  Two  paths  are  made 
leading  to  the  top  and  bordered  with  shrubs.  The 
one  faces  to  the  East  and  is  used  by  the  minor 
officials,  the  other  facing  the  West  is  destined  for 
the  presiding  priest  only. 

Some  of  the  deacons  now  play  on  archaic  instru- 
ments such  as  castanets  of  bronze,  and  a novel  feature 
of  the  orchestra  is  a kettle-drum  with  an  ingenious 
contrivance  by  which  each  side  is  struck  alternately 
with  a stone  ball. 

The  child,  dressed  in  a long  white  robe  studded 
with  small  pieces  of  metal,  advances  towards  the 
priest  who  shaves  the  crown  of  his  head  and  lays 
the  hair  removed  on  a snow-white  linen  cloth.  Then 
priest  and  neophyte  ascend  the  path  to  the  top  of 
the  imitation  Keylasa  where  a large  circular  basin 
awaits  them.  The  youth,  with  a cotton  crown  on 
his  head,  is  at  once  sprinkled  with  holy  water  and 
baptized  while  some  children  carefully  wipe  his  feet 
and  march  round  him  holding  torches.  This  cir- 
cumambulation  is  repeated  nineteen  times  in  honour 
of  the  novice’s  nineteen  souls.  Throughout  the  East 
many  souls  are  accredited  to  every  human  being. 
Of  these  one  alone  is  deemed  immortal.  The  vital 


262  SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE 

soul  resides  in  the  navel,  the  supreme  soul  in  the 
bosom. 

The  young  Cham  only  receives  the  minimum  of 
education.  The  priests  teach  the  boys  the  first 
principles  of  reading  and  writing.  In  the  first 
lessons  the  pupils  learn  by  heart  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  each  letter  representing,  according  to 
Hindu  belief,  one  of  the  divinities  which  make  their 
dwelling-place  in  the  human  body.  After  the 
alphabet  come  the  names  of  the  animals  which  sym- 
bolize the  years  of  the  duodenary  cycle.  The 
remuneration  of  the  teachers  consists  of  a present 
of  eggs  and  a bottle  of  spirits  and  is  due  at  the 
beginning  of  the  first  lesson.  The  Cham,  however, 
are  not  apt  pupils,  being  incorrigibly  lazy  and  it 
is  quite  a triumph  if  a woman  knows  the  elements 
of  housekeeping.  When  we  tried  to  make  laundresses 
of  some  of  the  women  in  our  escort  we  discovered 
the  depths  of  their  ignorance  and  stupidity.  The 
articles  we  sent  to  be  washed  came  back  as  dirty 
as  when  they  went,  for  the  sole  idea  of  washing  was 
to  beat  the  object  a certain  number  of  times  against 
a stone.  The  number  of  times  was  a fixed  quantity 
beyond  which  the  laundress  refused  to  go,  even  if 
the  dirt  remained  unshaken  ! 

But  if  the  domestic  education  of  the  women  is 
neglected  what  shall  be  said  of  their  moral  education 
which,  is  practically  non-existent  ? Here,  as  else- 
where in  the  Far  East,  a woman  is  regarded  as  requir- 
ing nothing  more  than  a knowledge  of  etiquette 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE  263 

and  her  instruction  is  complete  when  she  can  recite 
by  heart  all  the  rules  which  govern  social  intercourse 
and  constitute  good  manners.  Some  of  these  rule? 
seem  nothing  less  than  comic  to  the  European. 

For  example,  to  laugh  in  public  as  a sign  of  pleasure 
is  strictly  forbidden,  but  it  is  the  height  of  good 
form  to  yawn  when  bored.  When  the  flax  is  being 
gathered  in  it  is  proper  to  pretend  to  be  drunk,  for 
the  plant  is  thereby  encouraged  to  preserve  its 
inebriating  qualities. 

When  a domestic  utensil,  such  as  a cooking-pot, 
becomes  broken  with  use  the  good  housewife  will 
do  nothing  so  ill-advised  as  to  throw  it  away.  Good 
breeding  as  well  as  respect,  which  is  due  to  inanimate 
objects  just  as  much  as  to  living  persons,  exact  that 
the  faithful  servant  shall  be  hung  on  the  piles  on 
which  the  house  stands  and  in  due  time  be  graciously 
abandoned  to  a sudden  flood.  Hence  the  enormous 
number  of  utensils  of  all  descriptions  which  are  to 
be  seen  in  the  rivers  of  Cambodia  and  other  countries 
inhabited  by  the  Cham. 

Lessons  in  etiquette,  which  are  obligatory  on  both 
boys  and  girls,  are  varied  most  pleasantly  with  games 
of  all  kinds.  Of  these  perhaps  the  most  popular 
are  the  foot  races  which  are  organized  for  children 
of  all  ages.  The  competitors  are  handicapped 
according  to  their  years  and  intense  is  the  excite- 
ment when  the  signal  is  given  to  start.  The  prizes 
awarded  to  the  winners  are  generally  bananas  or 
mangoes,  whichever  is  in  season.  When  the  sugar 


264  SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE 

cane  is  ripe  the  children  are  very  fond  of  a game 
which  is  played  in  this  wise. 

A stick  of  sugar  cane  is  put  on  the  ground.  The 
player  takes  a knife  and  his  task  is  to  cut  the  stalk 
into  five  pieces  in  three  strokes.  If  he  is  a skilled 
performer  he  makes  the  second  cut  in  such  a way 
that  two  of  the  pieces  lie  close  enough  together  to 
be  slashed  through  with  the  final  stroke.  The  rules 
forbid  the  player  to  use  his  hands  to  arrange  the 
pieces  so  that  the  second  stroke  requires  no  little 
skill. 

If  the  canes  cannot  be  obtained  from  the  paternal 
field  recourse  must  be  had  to  the  shops,  and  then  a 
contest  ensues  in  which  each  child  tries  to  avoid 
being  left  to  pay  the  bill.  To  settle  this  thorny 
point  lots  are  drawn,  for  the  first  comers  have  a 
great  advantage.  The  fortunate  player  on  whom 
the  lot  falls  has  the  right  of  selecting  the  largest 
stalk  from  the  dealer’s  stock,  taking  care  that  the 
bottom  section  is  of  normal  form.  He  now  balances 
the  cane  before  him,  and  with  one  slash  of  his  knife 
cuts  it  in  two  before  it  has  had  time  to  fall.  He  is 
entitled  to  keep  the  part  he  has  cut  off  and  if  he  is 
skilful  it  will  be  a large  one.  The  second  player 
now  takes  the  rest  of  the  stick  and  performs  the  same 
operation.  The  others  follow  in  turn,  the  various 
sections  are  compared  and  the  owner  of  the  shortest 
piece  has  the  honour  of  paying  for  all  after  which 
they  devour  the  booty  with  the  solemnity  of  a public 
ceremony. 


SOCIAL  AND  FAMILY  LIFE  265 

The  children  pick  up  a smattering  of  musical 
knowledge  and  never  lose  an  opportunity  of  perform- 
ing on  their  fathers’  gongs.  Sometimes  they  play 
together  and  occasionally  attain  the  height  of  a 
recognizable  melody  when  the  instruments  are  of 
much  the  same  pitch  and  the  touch  of  the  artist 
is  light.  Children  of  a more  serious  disposition  are 
initiated  into  the  mysteries  of  chess,  a game  which 
is  played  all  the  world  over.  The  Cham  chessman 
is  very  similar  to  ours  and  the  board  has  also  sixty- 
four  squares.  The  castle,  however,  is  replaced  by  f 
a general,  the  bishops  by  canoes,  and  the  pawns 
by  fishes.  The  object  of  each  player  is  to  put  the 
opposing  king  in  check  and  the  means  adopted  are  - 
virtually  the  same  as  in  our  game. 


CHAPTER  III 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

The  beginnings  of  Islam  in  Indo-China — Rites  which  accompany  initiation 
into  the  priestly  caste — The  gods  of  the  Cham — Temples — Resemblance 
between  the  architecture  of  the  Cham  and  that  of  the  Kmer — Phallic 
rites — A visit  to  a royal  sepulchre. 

^HE  date  of  the  introduction  of  Islam  into 
Indo-China  has  never  been  more  than 
approximately  fixed.  The  better  opinion  is  that 
it  made  its  way  into  the  country  in  the  twelfth  ^ 
century  through  the  medium  of  Persian  or  Arab 
traders.  However  that  may  be,  the  new  faith  main- 
tained itself  more  or  less  in  its  primitive  purity  among  ; 
the  Cham,  thanks  largely  to  the  zeal  of  the  Malays  i 
who  had  proved  ready  converts  and  migrated  into 
Indo-China,  and  more  especially  Cambodia,  in  large 
numbers  from  the  fourteenth  century  onwards.  In 
Annam,  on  the  other  hand,  Islam  was  speedily 
blended  with  Hinduism  to  form  a compound  in 
which  the  original  ingredients  almost  defied 
recognition. 

Among  the  Mohammedan  Cham,  known  as  the 
Cham  Bani,  the  head  of  the  priestly  caste  is  called 
“ P6  Gru  ” or  “ Ong  Gru,”  titles  the  sense  of  which 

266 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  267 

may  be  rendered  by  “ Leader  of  the  Faithful.” 
He  is  selected  from  the  Imons,  the  priesthood  who 
are  assisted  in  the  discharge  of  their  ceremonial 
duties  by  various  religious  officials  of  lower  rank. 

The  rank  of  a priest  is  indicated  by  the  length  of 
the  scarlet  and  gold  tassels  on  his  turban.  Otherwise 
there  is  no  distinction  in  the  costume  which  consists 
of  a white  sarong,  a white  shirt  fastened  with  yellow 
glass  buttons  and  a white  girdle  also  ornamented  with 
tassels.  The  crook  is  a long  rattan  stalk  carried  in 
the  hand.  The  High  Priest’s  crook  is  distinguished 
by  having  its  roots  plaited  together  to  form  a kind 
of  basket. 

Few  of  the  priests  read  Arabic  and  that  with  diffi- 
culty, while  the  surahs  they  recite  by  heart  bear 
only  a distant  resemblance  to  the  Koran.  The  very 
word  “ Koran  ” is  unfamiliar.  It  is  usually  referred 
to  as  “ The  Book  of  Islam,”  or  “ The  Book  of  Praise,” 
or  the  “ Treatise  of  the  Faith.” 

In  Annam  the  Ramadan  lasts  only  three  days, 
though  the  priests  observe  the  fast  for  the  full 
prescribed  month. 

On  the  evening  before  the  fast  begins  each  priest 
makes  his  way  to  the  mosque  and  takes  up  his  station 
in  the  building  with  his  impedimenta.  He  is  careful 
not  to  forget  his  minimum  of  necessaries.  His 
first  act  is  to  spread  out  with  meticulous  care  the  mat 
which  is  to  serve  him  for  a bed.  At  one  end  of 
this  he  places  a cube  of  lacquered  wood,  his  pillow. 
Next  he  solemnly  unrols  the  palm  leaves  on  which 


268 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


the  sacred  lines  have  been  engraved  with  some  sharp 
instrument.  Then  he  hangs  his  string  of  amber 
beads  on  the  wall.  As  earthly  indulgences  are  not 
entirely  forbidden  to  him,  he  takes  good  care  to 
bring  his  cigarettes  and  the  apparatus  for  preparing 
betel  and  tea. 

As  long  as  the  fast  lasts  he  is  prohibited  from 
leaving  the  building,  so  the  two  vessels  containing 
water  for  the  nine  liturgical  ablutions  are  set  up 
under  the  porch  just  within  reach.  These  ablutions 
are  a very  serious  part  of  the  business,  for  it  is  abso- 
lutely essential  that  no  part  of  the  ceremony  should 
be  omitted,  even  in  forgetfulness. 

First  he  washes  his  hands,  spraying  the  water  up 
to  his  elbows,  then  his  mouth,  nostrils,  forehead,  and 
finally  his  feet  as  far  as  the  ankles.  Woe  to  him  if 
he  forgets  to  recite  his  five  daily  prayers  or  his  nightly 
salaam,  religious  exercises  which  he  usually  consigns 
to  oblivion  at  other  times  ! The  meticulous  obser- 
vance of  the  rites  during  these  four  weeks  is  a 
guarantee  of  sanctity  and  the  redemption  of  sins, 
past,  present  and  prospective. 

Of  these  sins  the  commonest  are  breaches  of  the 
multifarious  regulations,  affecting  both  the  Kaphir 
and  Bani  priests,  prohibiting  the  consumption  of 
certain  specified  foods.  That  sins  of  this  character 
should  be  distressingly  frequent  is  hardly  surprising 
when  we  remember  that  each  month,  and  even 
each  day  of  the  month,  has  its  particular  prohibition. 
Thus  stews,  hashes,  hare  and  poultry  are  strictly 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  269 

forbidden  on  Mondays  in  the  second  month.  All 
foods  containing  oil  and  dark-coloured  meat  may 
not  be  touched  on  Thursdays  in  the  fifth  month. 
Prohibitions  so  strict  and  comprehensive  show  the 
road  to  certain  transgression  in  a country  where  in 
the  nature  of  things  there  can  be  little  variety  of  diet. 

Historians  have  noted  in  all  peoples,  whatever 
the  degree  of  civilization  that  has  been  attained, 
the  prevalence  of  the  idea  that  some  intermediary 
is  necessary  to  establish  communication  between  man 
and  his  God.  Thus,  in  Egypt  of  the  Pharaohs,  the 
King  was  considered  the  son  of  God,  and  as  such 
the  proper  medium  through  which  his  subjects 
should  address  their  deity.  This  sacred  office  of 
the  King  was  recognized  by  the  deity  himself.  On 
certain  appointed  days  the  statue  of  the  god  made 
some  conventional  sign  to  indicate  his  approval  and 
assent.  We  have  the  evidence  of  bas-reliefs  in  the 
temples  to  show  that  this  fiction  was  still  maintained 
in  the  days  of  the  Roman  Empire.  At  a subsequent  - 
period  the  sacred  function  was  delegated  to  a special 
priestly  caste ; under  the  later  Empire  we  find  the 
High  Priests  of  Amon  at  Thebes  usurping  the  royal 
authority  in  its  entirety. 

Professor  Foucart,  in  his  “ History  of  Religions,”* 
shows  that  the  origin  of  the  sacerdotal  caste  is  to 
be  sought  in  remote  antiquity.  Man  has  always 
experienced  the  need  of  a privileged  class,  set  apart 
for  the  purpose  of  ensuring  the  observance  of 


See  Bibliography  ai  cud. 


270 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


certain  religious  rites  and  securing  their  transmission 
from  generation  to  generation  in  their  primitive 
purity.  These  rites,  which  are  usually  simple  in 
character  and  in  essentials  common  to  all  religions, 
are  generally  accompanied  by  mystic  phrases,  the 
sum  of  which  constitutes  Ritual.  As  the  phrases 
are  often  high-sounding  and  impressive,  historians 
have  been  tempted  to  attribute  to  them  a meaning 
which  is  not  warranted  in  fact.  In  most  cases  the 
words  used  do  nothing  more  than  define  the  character 
of  the  ceremonial  act  which  they  accompany.  But 
as  the  essence  of  Magic  is  the  endowment  of  a simple 
phrase  or  object  with  an  ulterior  mystical  significance 
it  is  not  surprising  that  the  ritual-makers  should  spare 
no  pains  to  produce  an  illusion  in  the  minds  of  the 
worshippers.  Their  obvious  motive  is  to  exploit, 
in  the  interest  of  their  own  class,  a science  which 
results  in  material  advantages. 

The  education  of  the  priests  is  not  confined 
to  the  study  of  the  secret  language  but  extends 
to  a knowledge  of  the  special  objects  used  in 
religious  ceremonies.  Consequently  a period  of  in- 
itiation, a phenomenon  noticed  in  all  ages  and  among 
all  races,  is  regarded  as  essential  for  aspirants  to  the 
priestly  ranks.  The  rites  which  mark  this  period 
of  initiation  are  substantially  similar  among  all  races. 
They  are  directed  in  the  main  towards  the  purification 
of  the  neophyte  from  the  sins  inherent  to  the  secular 
state  and  to  set  the  stamp  of  legality  on  his  adoption 
of  the  religious  life.  In  general,  they  consist  of  a 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


271 


rite  of  separation  to  mark  the  abandonment  of  old 
ties,  a rite  of  purification  proper,  and  rites  of  adoption 
into  the  new  association.  From  this  it  is  easy  to  see 
why  ceremonies  of  this  kind  always  enshrine  the  meta- 
phor of  a death  to  the  old  life  and  a re-birth  in  the 
new  one.  Whether  we  turn  to  the  Shamans  of 
Siberia,  the  Lamas  of  Thibet,  the  Brahmins  of  India, 
the  Bonzes  of  Cambodia,  the  Padjaos  of  the  Cham, 
we  find  the  essence  of  the  ceremony  identical,  however 
diversified  the  details  may  be. 

All  those  familiar  with  the  practice  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  know  that  among  certain  of  the 
Orders  the  ceremony  of  entry  or  taking  the  veil 
includes  the  Burial  Service  followed  by  a hymn  of 
triumph  to  hail  the  resurrection  of  the  pew  spirit 
reclaimed  from  the  world.  In  other  religions  the 
procedure  is  a heavy  sleep  from  which  the  novice 
awakes  to  find  himself  consecrated  by  Heaven. 

The  rudiments  of  this  idea  are  found  in  the  rites 
which  mark  the  ordination  of  a Padjao  among  the 
Kaphir  Cham.  A Padjao  is  not  so  much  a priestess 
as  a prophetess  in  whom  resides  the  power  of  fore- 
telling the  future  and  also  of  protecting  from  all 
evil  when  the  Spirit — or  rather  the  “Transport,”  to 
adopt  the  professional  phrase  used  by  her  class — ■ 
takes  her. 

Properly  speaking  the  Padjao  does  not  “ take 
vows,”  but  rather  devotes  herself  to  strict  celibacy. 
If  she  is  married  when  the  heavenly  call  comes  to 
her  her  husband  must  leave  her  at  once.  The 


272 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


observance  of  continence,  apparent  if  not  actual,  is 
obligatory,  and  any  breach  of  this  rule  would  be 
visited  by  the  Spirits  with  the  most  condign  punish- 
ment affecting  both  the  transgressor  and  her 
accomplice. 

According  to  a certain  priest  of  Phanrang,  “ Padjao  ” 
means  “ Princess,”  and  the  modern  priestesses  per- 
form the  functions  which  formerly  devolved  on  the 
ladies  of  royal  blood  who  filled  religious  offices  in 
ancient  Champa.  On  the  other  hand,  “ Padjand  ” 
in  old  Javanese,  means  “ Moonlight,”  and  in  this 
connection  it  is  significant  that  the  Cham  identify 
with  the  moon  one  of  their  most  highly  venerated 
divinities,  the  “ Celestial  Padjao.”  However  this 
may  be,  the  ordination  of  these  women  in  Annam  is 
marked  by  some  very  curious  ceremonies.  The  novice 
is  selected  by  the  Priestess  herself  when,  feeling  herself 
advancing  in  years,  the  choice  of  a successor  becomes 
an  urgent  matter.  The  fortunate  object  of  her 
selection  receives  the  name  of  “ Happiness  of  the 
Human  Race.”  She  falls  on  her  knees  before  her 
spiritual  mother  and  offers  her  two  eggs,  a cup  of 
spirits  and  some  betel,  a sign  of  her  dutiful  submission. 
The  recipient  of  these  gifts  now  takes  off  her  girdle 
and  passes  it  round  the  head  of  her  newly  appointed 
assistant  who  is  bound  henceforth  to  appear  in  this 
form  of  turban  at  every  public  ceremony.  Then 
they  both  swallow  three  grains  of  rice  and  salt, 
symbols  of  plenty.  The  novice  next  falls  into  a sleep 
or  trance,  during  which  her  soul  departs  to  the  moon 


Image  of  a Departed  Saint  in  a Phallic  Temple.  Statues  erected  to  the  Dead  in  Laos. 


Shrine  of  a Laotian  Priest.  i Interior  of  the  Shrine. 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


273 


to  be  consecrated  by  the  great  “ Celestial  Padjao,” 
who  will  reveal  to  her  all  the  mysteries  of  life  and 
the  secrets  of  mortals.  This  trance  is,  of  course, 
the  counterpart  of  the  symbolic  death  and  resur- 
rection which  we  have  seen  to  be  characteristic 
of  the  change  from  the  earthly  to  the  heavenly 
life. 

During  this  ceremony,  which  is  called  the 
“ Deification  of  the  Padjao,”  the  Faithful  sacrifice 
a black  kid  and  burn  eaglewood  the  odour  of  which 
is  supposed  to  be  particularly  agreeable  to  the 
dwellers  in  the  Heavens. 

Priestess  and  novice  next  indulge  in  a religious 
dance  known  as  the  “ Tania.”  In  their  left  hands 
they  wave  a scarlet  scarf  while  holding  a fan  in  their 
right.  Then  taking  a betel  leaf  the  priestess  passes 
it  through  the  flame  of  a candle  and  offers  it  to  her 
who  is  thenceforward  to  share  her  office.  It  must 
not  be  imagined,  however,  that  the  novice  secures 
her  entry  into  the  priestly  caste  by  this  ceremony. 
Her  admission  is  temporary  and  is  only  confirmed 
when,  after  a novitiate  of  a year,  the  Gods  indicate 
their  consent  to  delegate  their  powers  to  her.  A 
second  ordination  is  thus  necessary  which  must  be 
attended  by  all  those  who  were  present  at  the  first. 
If,  however,  some  of  the  original  spectators  have 
died  in  the  meantime  the  rites  are  satisfied  if  they 
are  represented  by  members  of  their  families  of  the  _ 
same  sex. 

On  the  evening  before  this  second  ceremony 

18 


274  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

all  those  who  are  to  take  part  in  it  must  take  the 
bath  of  purification. 

As  the  approval  of  the  Celestial  Padjao  is  by  no 
means  a foregone  conclusion  her  answer  is  awaited 
by  the  priestess  with  some  trepidation.  With  a 
view  to  securing  her  favourable  regard  the  latter 
brings  an  offering  in  a basket  on  which  she  sets  up 
two  lighted  candles.  These  candles  are  the  medium 
through  which  the  divine  will  is  to  be  revealed.  If 
they  go  out  or  burn  with  a smoky  flame  this  is  a 
clear  indication  to  the  novice  to  abandon  her  hopes 
and  return  to  her  old  life.  In  that  case  a successor 
to  her  will  be  found  in  due  time.  But  if  the  candles 
burn  up  brightly  the  year’s  apprenticeship  has  been 
judged  sufficient  to  qualify  her  for  divine  approval. 

A person  whose  assistance  is  indispensable  to  the 
Padjao  is  the  “ Meudoun,”  an  individual  who  does 
not  belong  to  the  priestly  caste  but  who  is  in  constant 
touch  with  the  deities  by  virtue  of  his  office.  The 
period  of  initiation  is  short  and  is  occupied  by 
learning  to  perform  on  the  drum  and  reciting 
liturgical  phrases.  The  “ Meudoun  ” is  appointed 
by  his  predecessor  and  enters  upon  his  duties  im- 
mediately. His  services  are  requisitioned  when  exor- 
cisms, incantations  or  divinations  are  on  foot. 

Among  the  Cham  of  Cambodia  another  variety 
of  ceremonies  marks  the  ordination  of  their  Prophetess. 
In  the  first  place,  the  social  status  enjoyed  by  that 
official  is  not  as  high  as  in  Annam.  She  seems  to 
inspire  a kind  of  awe  rather  than  any  sentiment  of 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  275 

veneration.  Here  the  rites  of  initiation  savour  of 
Demonology. 

The  requirements  of  time  and  place  are  satisfied 
by  a clear  moonlight  night  and  a deserted  ant-heap 
in  the  depths  of  the  forest.  The  prospective  Pro- 
phetess appears  and  with  one  sweep  with  a sword 
severs  a cock  in  twain  from  its  head  to  its  tail.  Then, 
totally  naked,  she  executes  a frenzied  dance,  accom- 
panied by  weird  incantations  before  her  victim  until 
the  mystic  moment  when,  thanks  to  the  powers  of 
magic  and  the  veil  of  night,  the  severed  halves  join 
together  and  the  resurrected  fowl  utters  a paean  of 
victory  ! 

Priestesses  of  all  these  regions  have  this  in  common, 
that  they  dress  either  in  white  or  in  black  and  red. 
The  flesh  of  swine  and  lizards  is  absolutely  forbidden, 
no  mean  hardship  in  a portion  of  the  globe  where  the 
lizard  is  regarded  as  a great  delicacy. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that,  contrary  to  the  practice 
prevailing  among  most  semi-barbarous  peoples,  the 
Cham  allow  young  and  middle-aged  women  to  perform 
religious  functions.  The  age  of  twenty  is,  in  fact, 
the  normal  time  for  entering  the  sacerdotal  caste. 
This  is  all  the  more  remarkable  because  it  has  fre- 
quently been  demonstrated  that  among  primitive 
races  women  are  not  admitted  to  the  privileges  of 
men  until  after  the  menopause. 

The  Pantheon  of  the  Cham  Bani  consists  of  the 
“ Heroes  of  Civilization  ” to  whom  they  ascribe  the 
foundation  and  development  of  their  three  ancient 

i8* 


2j6  rites  and  superstitions 

capitals.  Thus  P6  Oulah,  or  Allah  the  Mighty, 
made  his  residence  during  the  eleventh  century  in 
the  town  of  Bal  Sri  Banoy.  It  is  more  than  likely 
that  this  potentate  was  the  actual  conqueror  who 
first  brought  Islam  into  Indo-China. 

P6  Klong  Garai  is  said  to  have  founded  the  second 
capital,  Bal-Hangov,  the  “ City  of  Pine  Trees,” 
the  reputed  traces  of  which  have  been  discovered 
near  Hue.  Finally  P6  Binosuor  shed  the  lustre  of 
his  name  on  Bal  Angouai,  the  j:uins  of  which  are 
still  visible  at  Cha  Ban  in  the  province  of  Binh  Dinh. 
Some  philologists  associate  this  city  with  the  ancient 
town  of  Balonga  mentioned  by  Ptolemy.  For  this 
last  ruler,  however,  whose  great  achievement  was 
the  repuke  of  the  Annamite  invasion,  the  Cham  have 
substituted  the  name  of  P6  Rame,  a prince  of  no 
great  fame,  who  seems  to  have  been  a kind  of  adven- 
turer who  sprang  into  importance  by  marrying  a 
princess  of  royal  blood. 

It  need  hardly  be  said  that  these  great  heroes  are 
credited  with  all  manner  of  marvellous  exploits. 
The  supernatural  even  enters  into  their  birth,  for 
they  are  [supposed  to  have  been  born  of  virgin 
mothers,  a detail  which  enhances  their  resemblance 
to  the  Brahminic  divinities.  In  this  connection 
it  may  be  observed  that  the  members  of  the  Hindu 
Trinity,  Brahma,  Vishnu  and  Siva,  with  their 
“ Saktis,”  or  wives,  Uma,  Lasmi  and  Kali,  are  univer- 
sally confused  with  the  native  deities  of  the  Cham 
either  under  their  own  or  substituted  names.  For 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  277 

example,  P6  Ino  Ndgar,  the  Black  Lady,  the  Queen 
of  Women,  is  none  other  than  ancient  Bhagavati, 
the  sakti  of  Siva. 

The  Pantheon  of  the  Kaphir  Cham  is  no  less 
nondescript.  At  its  head  stand  out  three  masculine 
divinities.  The  first  is  P6  Amo,  Lord  of  Creation, 
who  bears  a close  resemblance  to  Brahma.  The 
second,  P6  Yata,  is  only  an  emanation  of  P6  Amo 
and  reigns  over  the  Vault  of  Heaven.  The  third  is 
P6  Allah,  an  incorporeal  deity  whose  sanctuary  is  at 
Mecca  and  who  has  been  borrowed  from  the  pantheon 
of  the  Cham  Bani. 

Then  follows  a certain  number  of  female  divinities, 
among  whom  P6  Ino  Nogar  of  the  Cham  Bani  appears 
as  P6  Yang  Ino  Nogar  Taha,  the  Great  Mother- 
Goddess  of  the  Kingdom  who  is  endowed  with 
authority  over  the  others.  This  venerable  matron, 
born,  it  is  said,  from  a wave  of  the  sea,  married  no 
less  than  ninety-seven  husbands.  Her  offspring, 
however,  amounted  to  no  more  than  thirty-eight 
daughters,  a poor  compliment  to  the  prolific  powers 
of  her  spouses. 

These  girls  remained  virgins  all  their  lives  and 
showed  the  effects  of  their  enforced  cehbacy  in  their 
sour  tempers.  This  unpleasant  characteristic,  how- 
ever, has  made  them  objects  of  peculiar  veneration 
to  the  natives  whose  utilitarian  morals  teach  them 
to  neglect  the  deities  reputed  to  be  amiable  and 
concentrate  all  their  fervour  on  those  considered 
evilly  disposed  towards  man. 


278  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

In  addition  to  housing  these  disagreeable  virgins, 
the  Heavens  are  also  the  abode  of  a young  queen 
who  can  grant  or  withhold  all  human  joys.  Her 
name  is  Padjao  Yang  and  she  personifies  the  Moon, 
the  faithful  minister  of  P6  Adityak,  the  Sun.  When 
the  Sun  passes  before  Padjao  Yang  she  shows  her  good 
oreeding  and  training  by  bowing  to  the  ground 
before  her  Master,  a mark  of  respect  which  produces 
the  phenomenon  of  eclipse.  One  characteristic 
which  this  immortal  person  shares  with  her  mortal 
sisters  is  worthy  of  remark.  She  is  never  more  than 
thirty  years  old  ! This  figure  has  been  selected 
probably  because  thirty  is  the  average  number  of 
days  in  a lunar  month.  It  need  hardly  be  said 
that  she  never  complains  of  this  burden  of  youth. 
Some  of  the  more  gallant  Cham  go  further,  and 
seeing  her  sometimes  arrayed  in  a diaphanous  halo, 
swear  that  her  age  never  exceeds  that  of  her  robe  ! 
How  many  of  those  same  mortal  sisters  would  like 
to  say  the  same  ! 

The  temples  in  which  the  ritualistic  ceremonies 
of  the  Cham  take  place  differ  according  to  the  obser- 
vances of  the  various  sects.  Thus  the  mosques  of 
the  Cham  Bani  are  narrow  huts  which  could  hardly 
accommodate  a single  family.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
more  than  a dozen  are  to  be  found  in  the  whole  of 
Annam.  They  invariably  face  west,  the  direction 
of  Mecca,  and  for  furniture  and  accessories  contain 
a few  mats  for  the  use  of  the  worshippers,  a drum 
to  call  them  to  prayer  and  a pulpit  which  never  seems 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  279 

to  be  occupied.  On  the  very  holiest  of  holy  days 
strips  of  white  cloth  are  hung  over  this  pulpit  and 
spread  over  the  floor.  On  Fridays  is  held  the  general 
service  of  prayer,  which,  however,  is  usually  but 
sparsely  attended.  The  Koran  requires  a quorum  of 
forty,  but  in  practice  that  figure  is  seldom  reached. 
At  the  conclusion  of  this  ceremony  wine  and  spirits 
are  freely  circulated  among  the  worshippers  though 
these  liquids  are  taboo  to  the  true  Mussulman. 

The  hut-temples  of  the  Siva-worshippers  among 
the  Kaphir  Cham  are  not  more  elaborate.  The 
chief  object  to  be  seen  in  one  of  these  is  the  “ Mukha- 
Linga,”  a piece  of  stone  cut  to  resemble  the  male 
organ  of  generation  but  adorned  with  the  face  of 
the  god  Siva,  which  is  made  more  lifelike  by  a 
dressing  of  coloured  plaster.  On  special  occasions 
this  curious  object  is  dressed  up  in  a scarlet  mantle. 
A stone  receptacle  for  holy  water  and  a few  other 
utensils  complete  the  necessary  accessories. 

These  temples,  however,  are  not  the  only  outward 
and  visible  signs  of  religious  life  among  the  Cham. 
A certain  number  of  ancient  monuments,  which 
both  Annamites  and  Europeans  erroneously  call 
towers,  but  which  are  in  fact  exclusively  devoted  to 
religious  uses,  are  carefully  preserved.  These  con- 
structions are  always  to  be  found  on  hills  or  at  other 
conspicuous  points  dominating  the  surrounding 
country.  The  choice  of  the  site  is  not  without 
significance.  It  is  a matter  of  universal  knowledge 
that  most  races  attach  a sacred  character  to  heights. 


28o 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


For  example,  Mount  Sinai  and  Mount  Tabor  are 
mentioned  as  holy  mountains  in  the  Bible.  The 
temple  of  Delphi  stood  on  a hill.  The  Acropolis 
looks  over  Athens,  and  the  Celts  always  selected 
some  prominent  spot  as  the  scene  of  their  sacrifices. 

The  best  preserved  of  the  temples  which  date 
from  the  days  when  the  kingdom  of  the  Champa 
stood  at  its  apogee  is  only  a few  miles  distant  from 
Phanrang.  It  was  built  early  in  the  fourteenth 
century  and  was  consecrated  to  P6  Klong  Garai. 
I had  plenty  of  opportunity  to  examine  the  ruins 
carefully,  for  with  the  sacrilegious  indifference  of 
Europeans  we  had  erected  on  them  the  lofty  mast 
which  was  essential  to  our  geodetical  operations. 

They  consisted  of  a principal  building  with  three 
annexes.  All  four  faced  east  and  were  made  of 
brick.  As  we  made  our  way  into  the  sanctuary 
for  the  first  time,  through  the  opening  which  served 
for  sole  entrance  and  exit,  we  were  greeted  by  a 
nauseating  smell  and  the  clapping  of  innumerable 
wings.  The  place  was  literally  infested  with  bats, 
and,  in  addition,  was  pitch  dark,  so  that  a torch  was 
a prime  necessity. 

The  interior  was  not  what  might  have  been 
expected  from  inspection  of  the  exterior.  As  access 
to  light  and  air  was  only  provided  by  the  one  narrow 
doorway,  it  is  not  difficult  to  imagine  how  the  sanc- 
tuary had  become  the  favourite  resort  of  all  the 
bats  in  the  district. 

A stone  altar  stood  against  the  back  wall.  The 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


281 


upper  surface  was  slightly  concave  to  enable  liquids 
to  run  off.  On  one  of  its  sides  was  a “ Mukha- 
Linga  ” with  black  beard  and  whiskers,  which  con- 
trasted strangely  with  the  pallor  of  the  face.  In 
the  vestibule,  with  a necklace  round  its  throat  was 
a “ Nandi,”  the  White  Bull  of  Siva,  which  the  Cham 
call  “ Kapila.”  He  it  is  who  bears  away  the  dead 
on  his  back  to  Keylasa,  of  which  he  is  the  guardian. 
According  to  the  Hindus  the  “ Nandi  ” is  also 
Siva’s  favourite  mount  and  frequently  their  identities 
blend  in  the  figure  of  a Hermit  with  the  body  of 
a man  and  the  head  of  a bull. 

The  Samaritans  also  favoured  animah-headed 
deities.  It  will  be  remembered  that  Thartac  had  a 
donkey’s  head  and  Anubis  that  of  a dog.  Other 
analogies  between  various  early  religious  systems 
readily  suggest  themselves. 

Thus  the  Babylonian  Ishtar  stood  for  the  principle 
of  fecundity  and  must  be  compared  with  the  goddess 
Kali,  the  sakti  of  Siva,  who  is  also  known  as  “ Yomi,” 
the  “ Fertile  Womb.” 

The  Assyrians  worshipped  another  Ishtar,  a highly 
formidable  goddess,  who  always  appears  in  her  statues 
armed  with  some  murderous  weapon.  This  char- 
acteristic of  cruelty  is  equally  prominent  in  Kali, 
the  goddess  of  Blood,  Lust  and  Death,  whose  statues 
always  represent  her  grimacing  and  repulsive  with 
a necklace  and  bracelets  of  human  skulls  and  bones. 

The  doorway  of  the  temple  is  formed  of  three 
granite  monoliths  of  which  the  two  uprights  are 


282 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


covered  with  inscriptions.  Above  is  a bas-relief 
on  a kind  of  sculptured  lintel,  representing  Siva 
dancing.  It  is  remarkably  well-preserved.  The  god 
has  six  arms.  The  lowest  pair  grasp  a trident,  as 
is  usual  in  statues  of  Siva,  and  a lotus-bloom,  which 
is  more  generally  associated  with  Vishnu.  The 
middle  pair  brandish  a scimitar  and  a dagger.  The 
other  pair  are  clasped  behind  the  god’s  head. 

Four  small  stone  elephants  complete  the  acces- 
sories of  the  sanctuary.  They  represent  the  wild 
elephants  which,  so  legend  says,  entered  the  temple 
while  it  was  being  built. 

There  is  a broad  general  resemblance  between  the 
temples  of  the  Cham  and  those  of  the  Kmer  who 
also  professed  the  Brahminic  religion.  The  Kmer 
also  selected  rising  ground  with  a wide  sweep  of 
view  as  the  site  for  their  sacred  edifices.  Great 
care  was  taken  that  the  main  fagade  should  face 
towards  the  east.  The  interior  consisted  of  a single 
hall  with  an  entrance  sometimes  so  low  that  it  was 
necessary  to  stoop  to  get  in.  The  walls  were  inno- 
cent of  all  decoration  and  became  damp  and  clammy 
in  the  darkness.  The  outside  walls  and  especially 
the  doorway,  however,  were  the  objects  of  con- 
siderable  artistic  effort.  The  doorway  in  particular 
was  usually  surmounted  by  a lintel  with  figures  of 
the  gods  and  their  distinctive  symbols.  Thus 
Vishnu  is  represented  astride  of  Garuda,  the  parrot- 
headed god,  Brahma  rides  on  geese  and  Indra  a 
three-headed  elephant.  The  dancing  Siva,  with  a . 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  283 

multitude  of  arms  disposed  halo-wise  around  his 
head,  is  one  of  the  commonest  figures.  I remember 
seeing  one  on  the  facade  of  the  Temple  of  P6  Klong 
Garai. 

The  architecture  of  the  Javanese  also  furnishes 
some  equally  remarkable  resemblances. 

I have  already  remarked  that  the  Siva-worshipping 
Cham,  like  their  Hindu  co-religionists,  have  adopted 
the  symbol  of  a linga  to  represent  that  deity. 
It  is  worthy  of  note  in  this  connection  that  the 
Egyptians  represented  their  god  Osiris  in  the  form 
of  a phallus,  the  equivalent  of  a linga.  This  phallus- 
worship  made  its  way  into  Greece,  and  especially 
Babylon  where  the  earliest  inscriptions  are  found 
engraved  on  large  clay  phalli. 

Phallus-worship,  transformed  into  linga-worship, 
was  introduced  into  the  Far  East  by  the  Hindus. 
Traces  of  it  have  been  found  in  Java.  In  spite  of 
the  distance,  Japan  also  welcomed  it  along  with 
many  other  foreign  cults  but  to-day  it  only  remains 
a tradition  in  that  country,  though  there  are  some 
Japanese  villages  where  huge  phalli,  made  of  bamboo 
covered  with  canvas,  figure  in  the  local  processions. 
At  the  top  of  these  weird  structures  is  a small  open- 
ing from  which  urchins  make  a pretence  of 
haranguing  the  crowd. 

Barth  considers  the  origin  of  linga-worship  to  be 
wrapped  in  obscurity.  We  know  that  phallic  rites 
were  part  of  the  religions  of  the  Veda  but  that  there 
was  no  actual  phallus-worship. 


284  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

^ Some  say  it  came  from  the  west,  probably  Greece, 
but  it  is  at  least  as  likely  that  the  Hindus  evolved 
this  particular  symbolism  themselves.  However  that 
may  be,  it  is  certain  that  the  cult  made  its  appear- 
ance simultaneously  with  Siva-worship. 

The  linga  is  often  represented  in  conjunction 
with  the  yoni,  the  female  organ  and  the  symbol  of 
Devi,  wife  of  Siva. 

It  should  be  said  at  once  that  these  objects  are 
treated  symbolically,  not  realistically.  The  linga 
is  a simple  cone,  the  yoni  a triangular  prism.  This 
abstract  treatment  is  said  by  some  to  be  the  outcome 
of  a protest  against  idolatry,  in  proof  of  which  they 
point  to  the  fact  that  Vishnu  and  Lasmi  his  wife 
are  represented  respectively  by  a fossil-shell,  the 
Calagrama,  and  a plant  of  the  sweet-basil  species,  the 
Tulosi.  It  should  be  added  that  Hindu  art  is  remark- 
able for  its  freedom  from  suggestiveness  and  that,  in 
whatever  guise  the  mystery  of  life  is  symbolized,  the 
form  selected  is  one  which  never  provokes  indecent  ideas. 

The  Kaphir  Cham  of  Phantiet  and  Phanry  have 
another  cult  of  the  same  kind,  the  worship  of  the  * 
yoni  in  another  form.  This  rite  is  the  introduction 
into  some  cavity,  the  hollow  of  a tree  perhaps,  or  the 
fissure  of  a rock  or  the  burrow  of  an  animal,  of  a 
large  rudely  carved  wooden  cylinder.  The  wor- 
shipper recites  the  wish  on  the  fulfilment  of  which 
his  hopes  are  set  while  pouring  spirits  on  the  cylinder. 
He  makes  his  prayer  to  P6  Yang  Dari,  the  Shameless 
Goddess  who  can  cure  children  of  all  diseases. 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  285 

The  primitive  conception  which  underlies  all  this 
symbolism  must,  of  course,  be  traced  to  the  belief 
in  imitative  magic,  which  endows  the  performance 
of  a ritualistic  act  with  the  power  of  inducing  other 
beings  or  objects  to  imitate  that  act.  It  is  thus 
quite  natural  that  the  idea  of  fecundity,  the  word 
being  taken  in  its  widest  sense,  should  be  closely 
associated  with  every  phase  and  form  of  phallus- 
worship. 

It  is  a thousand  pities  that  from  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century  the  spread  of  pharisaical 
prudery  has  prevented  even  those  best  qualified 
by  long  residence  among  uncivilized  races  from 
probing  into  questions  concerning  sex  and  publish- 
ing the  results  of  their  researches.  The  explorers 
of  the  eighteenth  century  were  not  so  hampered, 
and  their  observations,  from  which  the  veil  of  priggish 
reticence  is  withdrawn,  furnish  us  with  much  valuable 
information  on  a department  of  human  activity 
which  is  of  surpassing  interest  and  importance  to 
the  ethnographer. 

I The  Kmer  took  their  architecture  from  the  Hindus. 
There  is  an  obvious  resemblance  between  the  religious 
edifices  of  the  two  peoples  and  in  addition  both 
built  their  temples  in  naturally  secluded  places,  a 
preference  which  is  amply  explained  by  the  nature 
of  a religion  which  endows  its  deities  with  so  for- 
midable a character  that  only  priests  may  approach 
them.  The  rank  and  file  of  worshippers  have  to 
be  content  with  following  the  sacrifices  with  their 


286 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


thoughts.  They  congregate  in  the  outer  paved 
courts  of  the  temples  and  make  themselves  shelters 
of  bamboos  and  leaves.  In  some  places  asylums 
for  ailing  pilgrims  are  built  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  temples.  These  hospices  are  under 
the  charge  of  monks  who  care  for  the  stricken 
wayfarers. 

Of  the  slight  differences  which  distinguish  the 
buildings  of  the  two  peoples  the  most  noticeable 
is  the  treatment  of  the  roof.  The  Kmer  roof  is  a 
kind  of  ogival  dome  recalling  the  edifices  of  the 
Arabs,  while  the  Hindus  crown  their  quadrangular 
pyramids  with  a four-sided  cone. 

The  artistic  skill  of  the  Kmer  has  mainly  been 
lavished  on  pyramids,  sacred  pools  and  rock-surfaces, 
many  of  which  are  entirely  covered  with  figures  of 
gods.  There  are  also  many  towers  which  serve  as 
shrines  for  images  of  the  deities.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  the  stupas  of  the  Hindus  are  devoted 
to  a similar  use. 

The  temples  face  east,  an  arrangement  which  is 
explained  by  the  fact  that  the  services  usually  take 
place  early  in  the  morning  on  that  side  of  the  build- 
ing which  receives  a maximum  of  sun.  On  the 
other  hand  certain  temples  devoted  to  the  worship 
of  the  Gods  of  the  Lower  Regions  face  to  the  west, 
for  the  reason  that  the  rites  are  always  celebrated 
at  sunset. 

The  statuary  of  the  Cham  seems  to  owe  much 
both  to  the  Kmer  and  the  Hindus.,  One  fact,  indeed, 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  287 

is  incontestable,  that  the  human  type  represented 
is  clearly  the  Aryan,  whereas  the  Cham  artists  spent 
aU  their  lives  among  men  of  a totally  different  type. 
It  is  plain  that  they  did  not  take  their  own  people 
for  their  models.  The  explanation  can  only  be 
that  the  Cham  imported  their  art  of  sculpture  just 
as  they  imported  their  religion.  Another  remark- 
able fact  is  that  in  their  statues  of  gods  and  prophets 
the  figures  are  almost  destitute  of  clothing,  while 
their  kings  and  heroes  are  always  represented  in 
gorgeous  apparel.  In  this  connection  it  may  be 
remembered  that  the  prophets  of  one  of  the  two 
principal  sects  of  the  Jainists  call  themselves  the 
“ Digambara,”  which  means  “ They  who  are  clothed 
in  space.” 

The  usual  type  of  headdress  is  conical  or  cylin- 
drical in  shape.  The  lobes  of  the  ears  are  elongated 
and  pierced  with  holes  from  which  earrings  are 
hung.  The  feet  are  always  bare.  The  figures  of 
women  show  them  as  of  the  same  type  as  the  men, 
and  their  hair  is  dressed  in  similar  fashion.  The 
upper  half  of  the  body  is  uncovered,  exposing  their 
breasts  which  are  full  and  perfect  in  shape.  The 
lower  half  is  concealed  by  a kind  of  skirt  secured  at 
the  waist  by  a girdle  with  fringes  which  sweep  to 
their  feet.  Their  ears,  neck,  legs  and  arms  are 
adorned  with  jewels. 

These  main  features  are  found  reproduced  in  the 
few  antique  statues  still  to  be  found  among  the 
Cham. 


288 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


I have  a lively  recollection  of  one  occasion  on 
which,  so  I was  told,  I was  the  first  European  to 
enter  a certain  temple.  No  experience  in  my  varied 
life  has  left  a more  indelible  impression  on  my 
memory.  The  Mission  was  engaged  in  scientific 
operations  between  Phantiet  and  Phanry,  the  ancient 
home  of  the  Cham,  and  our  headquarters  consisted 
of  a number  of  rude  huts  in  the  very  heart  of  the 
forest. 

One  day  I received  a visit  from  the  headman  of 
a neighbouring  village,  a diminutive  individual  with 
a face  the  colour  of  a dead  leaf.  I had  previously 
rendered  him  some  service  by  treating  him  for  severe 
ophthalmia  and  he  now  proposed  to  show  his  gratitude 
by  revealing  to  me  the  whereabouts  of  a ruined 
temple  which  was  so  concealed  in  the  forest  as 
hitherto  to  defy  discovery  by  Europeans.  He  told 
me  I should  find  two  statues,  in  excellent  preserva- 
tion, of  kings  who  had  been  raised  to  the  rank  of 
deities  by  their  subjects.  Also  I was  to  have  every 
opportunity  of  sketching  and  taking  photographs. 

The  temple  was  not  more  than  thirty  miles  distant, 
so  my  expedition  was  duly  announced  as  a mere 
excursion  for  pleasure.  We  set  out,  accompanied 
by  two  young  natives,  my  usual  companions  in  my 
private  wanderings,  who  had  charge  of  the  photo- 
graphic and  other  apparatus  as  well  as  our  arms  and 
provisions.  Our  journey  was  without  incident,  for 
my  kind  guide  gave  me  the  fullest  instructions  as  to 
the  route  to  the  Temple  of  Song  Sui. 


Statue  of  an  Ancient  King  of  Cambodia.  Statue  of  an  Ancient  Queen  of  Cambodia. 


An  Old  Cham  'Fcmple  in  a Cambodian  Forest, 


[To  p. 


The  House  of  a Cham  Aristocrat. 


A Cottage  Home  in  Cambodia. 


[To  face  p.  289. 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  289 

This  remarkable  sanctuary  is  the  tomb  of  an 
ancient  king  of  the  Cham  and  the  object  of  a very 
popular  pilgrimage  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year. 
It  consists  of  three  separate  pavilions  in  a large 
enclosure  which  is  divided  into  two  halves,  one 
higher  than  the  other.  The  lower  half  is  used  by 
the  general  public  while  the  upper  is  reserved  for 
the  family  of  any  worshipper  who  desires  to  make 
a sacrificial  offering. 

The  statue  of  the  King  is  in  the  central  building. 
It  is  cut  from  a single  block  of  granite  and  coloured 
to  show  a robe  of  red  and  gold.  On  the  King’s  head 
is  a fez  to  which  a golden  helmet  is  added  on  special 
occasions.  The  neck  and  the  ears  are  pierced  with 
holes  from  which  necklaces  and  earrings  are  sus- 
pended. The  eyebrows  meet  above  the  nose,  the 
moustaches  are  twisted  upwards  and  the  eyes  are 
half-closed. 

The  door  of  the  central  pavilion  is  of  beaten  iron, 
hand-forged.  Of  the  two  other  pavilions  one  alone 
remains,  a picturesque  ruin.  The  other  has  com- 
pletely disappeared  in  the  undergrowth,  a few  stones 
remaining  to  mark  the  site.  In  the  survivor  there 
is  a statue  of  one  of  the  King’s  two  wives  standing 
between  two  elaborate  steles.  The  Queen’s  hair 
is  arranged  in  the  shape  of  a cone,  a fashion  which 
is  typical  of  the  statues  of  the  Kmer.  The  nails  are 
stained  red,  and  all  the  fingers  (except  the  middle 
one),  and  also  the  thumb,  are  covered  with  rings. 

A balustrade,  very  similar  to  those  which  decorate 

19 


290 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


European  • tombs,  runs  round  behind  this  pavilion. 
In  this  enclosure  an  unhappy  black  goat  is  chained 
up,  destined  to  decapitation  at  the  precise  moment 
when  the  sacrifice  is  consummated.  The  floor  is 
made  of  stone  with  a narrow  trench  through  which 
the  blood  is  drained  off. 

Having  exhibited  the  resemblances  between  this 
temple  and  those  of  the  Kmer  I propose  to  suggest 
other  resemblances,  not  less  striking,  between  it  and 
some  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  tombs. 

The  royal  steles  of  the  Egyptians  are  of  a fairly 
regular  outline,  gently  rounded  at  the  top  and 
usually  semicircular.  As  is  well  known,  their  pur- 
pose was  to  hand  down  to  posterity  the  identity  and 
genealogy  of  a particular  Pharaoh.  The  monarch’s 
statue,  on  the  other  hand,  was  the  actual  living 
image  of  the  departed,  for  it  was  universally  believed 
that  the  dead  man’s  double  returned  to  make  its 
abode  in  his  form.  It  is  even  possible  that  the  first 
idea  of  statuary  had  its  origin  in  this  conception  of 
a magical  reanimation. 

The  deceased  was  always  represented  in  his  robes 
of  state  (however  scanty)  and  seated  on  the  throne. 
Food  was  set  on  a small  table  within  his  reach.  The 
figure  was  dressed,  covered  with  jewels  and  smothered 
in  perfumes.  The  nails  were  coloured  with  henna 
and  the  eyes  blackened.  Every  step  in  the  pro- 
ceedings was  accompanied  by  formal  chanting. 

In  the  case  of  royal  statues  these  ceremonies  were 
observed  up  to  the  twelfth  dynasty.  They  then  fell 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


291 


into  desuetude  and  it  became  customary  merely  to 
paint  up  the  statue  with  clothes,  jewels  and  other 
accoutrements  in  as  realistic  a manner  as  possible. 
In  the  British  Museum  there  are  three  large  wooden 
statues,  taken  from  royal  tombs  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  which  are  remarkable  illustrations  of  this 
process  of  evolution  in  statuary. 

It  is  to  this  process  of  evolution,  due  to  a change 
of  ideas,  that  we  must  ascribe  the  gradual  disappear- 
ance of  the  belief  that  the  soul  of  the  deceased  re- 
turned to  dwell  in  his  statue,  and  also  of  the  equally 
primitive  belief  that  the  purpose  and  meaning  of 
offering  a sacrifice  was  to  furnish  the  deceased  with 
food  in  his  new  existence. 

I was  extremely  interested  in  my  visit  with  its 
valuable  discoveries,  and  it  may  readily  be  imagined 
that  I was  in  great  haste  to  return  to  camp  and 
develop  my  plates.  My  guide  announced  that  he 
knew  a route  which  would  save  us  many  miles.  The 
morning  passed  uneventfully  enough.  On  many 
occasions  we  crossed  the  tracks  of  elephants,  but  I 
was  not  to  be  moved  from  my  purpose.  Hunting 
was  out  of  fashion  that  day.  We  were  too  bent  on 
getting  home. 

To  be  ready  for  any  emergency  I gave  one  of  my 
rifles  to  the  Cham  chief  who  was  a good  shot.  Some 
alligators  were  sunning  themselves  on  the  sandy 
banks  of  a stream.  We  broke  in  upon  their  siesta 
without  hesitation  and  without  apology. 

My  companion  informed  me  that  we  should  pass 

19* 


292 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


through  a certain  village  and  that,  at  the  rate  at 
which  we  were  then  marching,  we  should  reach  it 
before  nightfall.  However,  our  two  boys,  less  ac- 
customed to  forced  marching  than  their  elders, 
began  to  show  signs  of  distress.  I could  see  them 
shifting  from  one  shoulder  to  the  other  the  bamboo- 
pole  from  which  our  impedimenta  was  slung  and  they 
soon  began  to  complain  of  the  thorns  in  the  path 
which  lacerated  their  feet.  The  two  boys  were 
quite  young,  the  elder  being  perhaps  sixteen.  They 
had  been  attached  to  the  Mission  for  more  than  six 
months,  a long  period  for  natives,  who  dislike  regular 
occupation  and  are  ever  in  search  of  change.  I 
had  a peculiar  affection  for  these  two.  They  were 
indefatigable  servants  and  remarkably  docile  and 
even-tempered. 

Their  complaints  seemed  reasonable  enough  and 
to  relieve  them  the  chief  and  I shouldered  the 
bamboo-pole.  We  set  off  again  but  soon  put  a large 
and  growing  distance  between  ourselves  and  the 
younger  generation  lagging  behind.  Meanwhile  the 
sun  was  hastening  towards  his  western  bed.  At  one 
time  the  loiterers  seemed  to  have  put  on  a spurt,  but 
the  effort  exhausted  itself  and  they  fell  behind  once 
more.  At  a bend  of  the  path  we  decided  to  wait 
until  the  boys  came  up.  We  kept  ourselves  carefully 
out  of  sight  lest  the  vision  of  our  halt  should  inspire 
them  to  a similar  indulgence. 

Some  minutes  passed,  but  no  one  appeared.  Had 
the  rascals  given  up  the  attempt  to  follow  us  or  had 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  293 

they  lost  their  way  ? I ran  back  to  the  bend  in  the 
path.  The  route  by  which  we  had  come  stretched 
away  in  a straight  line  for  miles,  but  no  human  being 
was  in  sight. 

Our  coolies  had  fled  ! 

The  mask-like  countenance  of  my  companion 
betrayed  neither  surprise  nor  any  other  emotion. 
The  truants  were  not  of  his  faith  nor  did  they  hail 
from  his  village.  They  were  but  vulgar  Annamites, 
at  best  a race  of  sneaking  hucksterers.  His  sym- 
pathies were  evidently  confined  to  the  faithful  of 
his  own  parish. 

I confess  I was  irritated  by  his  obvious  indiffer- 
ence. To  my  knowledge  the  forest  through  which 
we  had  passed  was  infested  with  tigers  and  the 
stunted  leafless  trees  were  the  most  illusory  refuge 
from  the  brutes.  I had  an  uncomfortable  pre- 
monition that  our  pleasure-party,  so  happily  begun, 
was  entering  the  realms  of  tragedy. 

In  the  course  of  our  three  years’  residence  in 
southern  Annam  no  less  than  twelve  natives  had 
been  devoured  by  tigers.  Several  of  the  victims 
were  attached  to  the  Mission,  and  on  more  than  one 
occasion  I had  been  the  hapless  witness  of  their 
horrible  sufferings. 

On  one  occasion  a coolie  suddenly  vanished  through 
the  wicker-work  floor  of  our  hut,  which  was  built  on 
piles  quite  nine  feet  high.  The  tiger,  however,  had 
climbed  on  to  a baulk  of  timber  which  was  lying  on 
the  ground  below  and  using  this  as  a platform  had 


294 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


succeeded  in  catching  hold  of  one  end  of  his  victim’s 
waist-cord  which  happened  to  be  hanging  through 
the  interstices  of  the  floor.  The  beast  gave  a violent 
tug  and  dragged  the  hapless  coolie  through  the  floor. 
The  man,  taken  by  surprise,  was  helpless  and  fell,  an 
unresisting  prey,  into  the  _tiger’s  jaws. 

I feel  considerable  diffidence  in  telling  a story 
which  I myself  should  not  have  believed  had  the 
tragedy  not  occurred  before  my  very  eyes. 

On  another  occasion  one  of  my  colleagues  and 
myself  were  taking  our  evening  meal,  waited  on  by 
a Cham  boy  about  twelve  years  old.  It  was  shortly 
after  seven,  I think,  and  the  rain  was  falling  in 
torrents.  All  at  once  we  heard  a shriek  proceeding 
from  the  direction  of  the  kitchen  and  in  a moment 
the  boy  entered,  white  with  terror. 

“ The  Tiger,”  he  could  hardly  get  the  words  out, 
“ seized  hold  of  my  coat.”  He  showed  us  a huge 
rent  in  the  flimsy  material  which  covered  his  trembling 
body.  Outside  it  was  pitch  dark.  We  had  no  lamps 
and  it  seemed  highly  risky  to  venture  forth  with  so 
undesirable  a neighbour  watching  us.  We  quickly 
set  about  protecting  ourselves  by  barricading  the 
entrance  to  the  room  with  a palisade  of  wattles.  The 
real  mystery  was  how  the  beast  had  made  its  way 
into  the  enclosure,  guarded  as  it  was  by  a solid  fence 
made  of  baulks  of  timber  and  forming  a veritable 
blockhouse.  An  hour  later  we  heard  the  stamping 
of  hoofs,  violent  kicks  and  terror-stricken  neighing. 
Then  silence.  About  midnight  our  light  went  out. 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


295 


It  would  have  been  madness  to  go  to  the  kitchen  to 
fetch  another,  so  we  found  ourselves  condemned  to 
wait  in  the  darkness,  listening  for  every  sound  and  our 
nerves  on  edge.  Needless  to  say,  sleep  was  impossible. 
At  dawn  we  ventured  out.  Everything  was  in  con- 
fusion. Our  horses  had  broken  loose  and  stampeded 
over  the  fence.  One  of  them  lay  disembowelled 
before  us  and  half  its  hindquarters  had  disappeared. 
On  the  face  of  the  embankment  on  which  our  house 
was  elevated,  immediately  before  the  door  of  the 
room  where  we  had  been  sitting,  were  the  traces  of  a 
tiger’s  paws  clearly  visible  in  the  clay. 

The  boy  had  not  been  mistaken.  He  had  indeed 
been  seized  by  the  beast  and  owed  his  safety  to  his 
worn  and  tattered  clothing.  The  marks  of  teeth 
and  claws  on  some  of  the  baulks  of  the  palisade 
showed  us  that  the  visitor  had  climbed  over.  We 
learnt  one  lesson  from  this  experience.  Our  camp, 
with  its  solid  rampart  ten  feet  high,  was  only  an 
illusory  protection  against  a really  determined  man- 
eater  ! 

All  these  horrible  recollections — and  many  others 
which  can  find  no  place  here,  this  not  being  a story 
of  adventure — flashed  through  my  mind  in  the  space 
of  a few  seconds. 

Meanwhile  time  was  flying  and  night  came  down 
on  us  unheralded  by  twilight  as  in  Europe.  Our 
search  was  all  in  vain  and  no  answer  came  to  our 
repeated  shouts.  The  coolies  had  gone. 

It  was  not  until  late  at  night  and  after  much 


296  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

struggling  that  we  reached  the  village.  In  spite  of 
the  friendly  light  thrown  by  a torch  I remained  all 
night  a prey  to  the  most  vivid  hallucinations.  Time 
after  time  I watched  a huge  tiger  spring  out  of  the 
darkness  with  the  corpse  of  one  of  the  missing  boys 
in  his  jaws. 

Two  days  later  the  elder  of  the  two  came  into 
the  village.  He  was  shivering  with  fever  and  dared 
not  present  himself  before  me,  so  I went  to  see  him. 
Ghastly  was  the  story  he  had  to  unfold.  Just  before 
the  bend  in  the  path  which  I have  mentioned  the 
two  boys  had  been  unable  to  go  further  and  had 
sat  down.  When  we  were  out  of  sight  they  had 
attempted  to  continue  their  journey,  but  before  they 
had  advanced  a few  yards  a huge  tiger  had  sprung 
upon  the  younger,  while  the  elder  had  remained  dumb 
with  astonishment  and  terror.  Helpless  with  fear 
and  weariness  the  survivor  had  wandered  in  the 
forest  and  at  last,  in  sheer  desperation,  had  climbed 
into  a tree  expecting  at  every  moment  to  share  the 
fate  of  his  luckless  companion. 

The  Cham  chief,  who  listened  to  this  harrowing 
story  with  an  air  of  indifference  and  barely  concealed 
scorn,  at  length  delivered  himself  of  an  aphorism : 

“ Fear  claims  far  more  victims  than  courage.” 


CHAPTER  IV 

RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  {continued) 

Agrarian  rites — Tabooed  ricefields — Secret  ploughing — Sleeping  rice — 
Various  uses  of  eaglewood — How  the  Cham  procure  it — Public 
festivals  and  holy  days. 

all  the  races  which  inhabit  Indo-China  the 
Cham  come  easily  first  for  the  variety  and 
individuality  of  their  agrarian  rites.  There  is  practi- 
cally no  difference  between  the  Bani  and  Kaphir  in 
this  respect.  Both  peoples  recognize  three  kinds 
of  sacred  ricefields  in  which  no  manner  of  work 
may  be  carried  on  without  the  accompaniment  of 
a special  ritual.  If,  in  the  course  of  ploughing  a 
ricefield,  excessive  fatigue  has  been  occasioned  to 
either  man  or  beast,  sufficient  to  cause  illness,  the 
field  becomes  taboo,  “ Hamu  Tabung.”  The  evil 
eye  has  been  cast  upon  it,  and  no  remedy  exists 
but  to  sell  the  contaminated  place  at  no  matter 
what  sacrifice.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  the 
only  possible  purchasers  are  the  few  Annamite 
Christians  who  are  scattered  throughout  these  regions. 
The  Buddhist  Annamites  shun  such  a spot  as  if  it 
were  plague-stricken.  The  cause  of  the  mischance 

297 


298  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

is  supposed  to  be  the  presence  of  some  ancient  burial- 
ground,  the  existence  of  which  was  not  suspected. 

Every  village  has  its  two  or  three  sacred  ricefields 
the  “ Hamu  Canrauv,”  which  are  invariably  the 
first  to  be  ploughed.  As  a rule  they  are  the  pro- 
perty of  the  local  aristocracy.  The  owner  with  his 
wife,  who  plays  the  principal  part  in  the  ceremony, 
goes  to  the  field  in  question,  either  in  the  evening 
or  at  dawn.  They  lay  down  a mat  at  one  corner 
and  on  it  place  two  eggs,  a cup  of  spirits  and  three 
betel  leaves,  which  the  wife  offers  as  a sacrifice  to 
P6  Olwah  Tak  Ala,  the  great  Lord  of  the  Underworld, 
begging  him  to  accept  them.  To  set  a good  example, 
husband  and  wife  share  the  good  things  between  them 
while  making  three  furrows  round  the  field.  After 
this  ceremony  ploughing  and  sowing  may  proceed  in 
the  ordinary  manner. 

There  are  also  fields  where  cultivation  is  forbidden, 
the  “ Hamu  Klaik  Lava.”  To  speak  more  accurately 
the  interdict  only  extends  to  open  cultivation  and  the 
tabooed  area  is  ploughed  and  worked  in  secret. 
These  operations  are  accomplished  in  the  following 
manner.  With  the  first  signs  of  day  the  husband 
and  wife  go  to  the  field  and  after  making  three  furrows 
in  silence  return  home.  When  morning  comes  they 
walk  to  the  place  and  profess  the  greatest  astonishment 
that  the  work  of  ploughing  has  already  begun.  “ Who 
is  the  kindly  Spirit,”  they  exclaim,  “ who  has  worked 
for  us  while  we  slept  ? ” Without  loss  of  time  they 
run  back  to  their  house  to  fetch  suitable  offerings. 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  299 

So  great  a marvel  as  a field  which  cultivates  itself  is 
worthy  to  be  consecrated  with  a sacrifice.  Accord- 
ingly they  first  bury  five  pieces  of  betel  in  the  ground 
and  throw  a handful  of  rice  into  the  three  magic 
furrows,  after  which  plough  and  bullocks  are  sprinkled 
with  holy  water  and  the  remaining  operations  may 
be  carried  out  without  further  concealment. 

A sacrifice  is  offered  as  soon  as  the  stalks  have 
emerged  from  the  ground  and  are  tall  enough  “ to 
hide  the  doves.”  Another  marks  the  moment  of 
flowering,  and  a third,  the  most  important,  celebrates 
the  time  of  harvest.  On  this  last  occasion  the  owner 
cuts  off  the  heads  of  three  of  the  stalks  and  wraps 
them  up  in  a cloth.  The  next  step  is  to  pass  them 
through  the  smoke  of  a fire  in  which  several  pieces  of 
eaglewood  are  burning.  These  ears  are  the  first-fruits 
offered  to  the  goddess  P6  Nogar,  and  they  are  after- 
wards hung  in  the  owner’s  house  until  the  next 
sowing  time  comes  round.  The  same  field  will  then 
be  sown  from  the  rice  thus  gathered. 

For  “ unconsecrated  ” ricefields  the  ritual  is  less 
complicated.  When  the  harvesting  is  due  the 
oldest  woman  of  the  group  is  selected  to  cut  three 
tufts,  which  she  sets  with  much  pomp  against  the 
bank  which  borders  the  field  and  harangues  the 
grain  as  yet  ungathered  in  the  following  terms : 

“ Follow  the  example  you  see  here  before  you 
and  you  will  be  worthy  of  a place  in  my  barns.” 
After  this  address  harvesting  proceeds  without 
interruption. 


300  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

When  the  grain  is  safely  gathered  in,  the  Cham 
believe  that  it  sleeps  all  day  and  only  awakes  at  night. 
It  would  be  the  height  of  desecration  and  imprudence 
to  disturb  its  slumbers,  and  consequently  we  soon 
learnt  the  futility  of  asking  our  hosts  for  paddy  in 
the  daytime.  We  were  invariably  informed  that 
we  must  wait  until  night.  It  was  only  at  a late 
hour  that  the  owner  would  consent  to  open  the  door 
of  his  barn  and  give  us  what  we  wanted. 

There  was  a very  curious  rite,  fallen  into  desuetude 
since  our  occupation  in  1888,  which  accompanied 
the  gathering  of  the  precious  essence  known  as  eagle- 
wood  or  aloe-wood.  This  substance  is  mentioned 
in  the  Bible,  the  Egyptian  papyri,  and  by  many 
Greek,  Hindu  and  Arab  writers.  It  seems  to  have 
been  used  extensively  for  embalming  the  dead,  as 
also  for  combining  with  camphor  to  make  a kind 
of  incense  burnt  in  the  temples.  It  appears  under 
different  names,  “ ahalot  ” in  Hebrew,  “ aghaluhy  ” 
in  Arabic,  “ ayaXXoxou  ” in  Greek,  “ agaru  ” in 
Sanscrit.  The  Cham  call  it  “ galao.”  Portuguese 
explorers,  who  seem  to  have  been  the  first  to 
discover  its  commercial  value,  used  the  Arabic  name 
and  translated  it  “ pao  de  Aguila.”  In  Latin  this 
becomes  “ lignum  aquilae,”  and  so,  in  modern 
tongues,  “ eaglewood,”  or  “ agalwood,”  “ adlerholz,” 
and  “ bois  d’aigle.” 

This  essence  has  attracted  the  attention  of  tra- 
vellers of  all  nations  owing  to  its  various  properties, 
and  was  formerly  a commercial  product  of  great 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


301 


importance  among  the  Cham.  It  is  found  all  over 
this  region,  which  seems  to  have  been  the  land  of 
its  origin,  for  it  is  never  met  with  further  north 
than  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  degree  of  latitude. 

Botanists  are  not  yet  agreed  as  to  the  class  of  trees 
from  which  it  is  produced.  The  most  up-to-date 
investigators  assert  that  it  is  produced  by  diseases 
due  to  malnutrition  in  certain  trees  such  as  the 
aquilaria  secundaria,  aloexylum  agallochum,  and 
aquilaria  agallocha,  all  of  the  family  of  the  aquila- 
rincea.  It  is  an  aromatic  substance  with  a slightly 
resinous  odour  and  bitter  to  the  taste. 

The  natives  distinguish  three  varieties,  according 
to  their  commercial  value.  The  first  quality,  which 
is  almost  impossible  to  find  to-day,  commanded  a 
price  of  no  less  than  fifty-four  pounds  a kilogramme. 
The  medium  quality  was  worth  sixteen  pounds  for 
the  same  quantity,  and  the  cheapest  quahty  w'as 
worth  rather  more  than  one  pound  a kilogramme. 

The  variety  of  uses  to  which  this  accommodating 
substance  can  be  put  is  astonishing,  though  it  is  not 
suitable  for  cabinet-making. 

It  is  largely  used  for  incense.  When  thrown  into 
a fire  it  melts  like  wax  and  gives  off  an  odour  which 
is  supposed  to  be  particularly  pleasing  to  the  Gods. 
Certain  other  of  its  properties  are  no  less  useful  to 
man,  who  values  more  material  favours.  Thus,  for 
example,  it  has  very  great  value  as  a safeguard 
against  dysentery,  which  is  prevalent  throughout 
Indo-China.  No  Mandarin  in  all  this  region  ven- 


302 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


tures  forth  on  a journey  without  having  a supply 
of  this,  indispensable  medicine  with  him. 

Of  course,  the  oriental  imagination  is  not  content 
to  confine  the  virtues  of  this  substance  to  those 
which  have  been  demonstrated  by  actual  experience. 
The  supernatural  is  bound  to  appear  somewhere,  and 
accordingly  all  kinds  of  magical  powers  are  also  attri- 
buted to  it.  Thus  every  person  who  bears  this  talis- 
man will  never  succumb,  however  long  he  may  be 
deprived  of  food.  On  the  contrary,  his  body  will 
no  longer  be  subjected  to  earthly  necessities  but 
wiU  enter  on  a state  of  divinity  which  requires  no 
sustenance.  The  Mandarins  have  every  reason  to 
appreciate  this  arrangement,  especially  at  the  time 
of  their  presentation  at  the  Imperial  Court  at  Hue. 
Etiquette  exacts  that  until  the  Sovereign  actually 
enters  the  throne-room  they  must  remain  quite 
motionless,  and  they  sometimes  find  themselves 
compelled  to  stand  for  hours  without  stirring  ! 

With  properties  so  invaluable  as  this,  it  is  hardly 
to  be  wondered  at  that  eaglewood  figured  largely 
in  the  gifts  presented  by  the  sovereign  of  Annam 
to  the  Emperor  of  China  by  way  of  tribute  every 
three  years.  To  ensure  a sufficient  supply,  all  trade 
in  this  substance,  whether  for  home  or  export,  was 
strictly  prohibited,  but  the  prohibition  was  removed 
after  our  occupation,  when  the  obligation  of  tribute 
was  suspended  and  finally  annulled. 

According  to  Masoudi,  the  celebrated  Arab  writer, 
eaglewood  has  a celestial  origin. 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  303 

“ After  the  FaU,  when  Adam  had  been  driven  from 
Heaven  by  the  angel,  he  fled  to  Mount  Rahoun 
in  the  island  of  Ceylon.  Before  leaving  Paradise, 
however,  he  contrived  to  snatch  some  leaves  from 
the  trees  and  sewed  them  together  to  make  a 
garment.  To  his  astonishment  they  shrivelled  up 
immediately  and  the  winds  scattered  them  to  every 
corner  of  India.  It  is  said,  but  of  the  truth  God 
alone  can  judge,  that  these  remnants  of  our  first 
father’s  vestment  gave  birth  to  all  the  perfumes  of 
Asia,  and,  among  them,  to  eaglewood.” 

Other  legends  of  Hindu  origin  say  that  the  aloes 
tree  grew  in  an  earthly  paradise  and  that  fragments 
of  it  were  swept  over  the  face  of  the  globe  by  a series 
of  floods. 

It  is  also  said  that  the  tree  originally  grew  only  on  the 
tops  of  inaccessible  mountains  where  fearful  monsters 
or  wild  beasts  guarded  it  from  the  greedy  hands  of  man. 

However  that  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  at  the 
present  time  the  public  is  not  interested  in  the  origin 
of  this  substance  so  much  as  its  exploitation  for 
commercial  purposes.  An  industry  formerly  so 
flourishing  should  be  systematically  revived,  if  only 
for  its  prospective  financial  importance. 

Balap,  where  the  members  of  our  mission  remained 
for  some  time,  is  celebrated  as  the  residence  of 
P6  Galao,  the  “ Lord  of  the  Eaglewood,”  on  whom 
devolved  in  former  times  the  duty  of  supervising  the 
gathering  of  the  precious  substance.  His  associates 
were  sixteen  men  of  the  same  village  and  a certain 


3°4 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


number  of  the  “ Raglai  ” Moi,  a group  living  in 
the  neighbourhood  whose  keen  sense  of  smell  is 
vital  to  success.  A good  nose  is  of  far  greater  im- 
portance than  good  sight,  for  eaglewood  exhales  a 
characteristic  odour  which  has  to  be  detected  from 
among  the  various  smells  of  the  virgin  forest.  Indeed 
the  task  of  finding  the  tree  is  beset  with  difficulties. 
The  undergrowth  is  so  thick,  the  vegetation  so  hardy 
and  rampant,  that  progress  can_  only  be  made  by 
clearing  a path  with  knife  and  hatchet.  The  decay- 
ing vegetation  is  a prolific  source  of  fevers.  It  is 
easily  understood  that  with  so  many  perils  ahead 
the  expedition  never  sets  out  without  a preliminary 
sacrifice  to  the  deities  who  can  assure  or  withhold 
success.  Of  these  deities  the  most  important  to 
appease  are  the  four  tutelary  divinities  of  the  valley 
of  Phanrang.  To  earn  their  goodwill  it  is  necessary 
to  build  a special  barn  for  the  sacrifice  and  make 
offerings  of  a goat,  cooked  rice,  eggs  and  spirits. 

As  soon  as  the  expedition  starts  the  searchers  are  bound 
by  a religious  law  of  silence.  Should  any  member  of 
the  party  speak  it  would  be  almost  certain  that  the  wood 
would  lose  its  perfume,  and  therefore  all  its  value. 

Of  course,  an  occasional  direction  to  the  “ Raglai  ” 
Moi  is  unavoidable,  and  for  this  purpose  the  Cham 
make  use  of  certain  brief  vivid  expressions.  For 
example,  if  they  wish  to  indicate  an  axe  they  say 
“ the  wood-pecker.”  When  they  want  to  speak  of 
fire  they  say  “ the  red.” 

For  a long  time  it  was  believed  that  this  conven- 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  305 

tional  language  was  a form  of  religious  speech,  some- 
what similar  to  the  “ Bhasa  Hantu,”  or  language  of 
the  Spirit,  employed  by  the  Malays.  Further 
research,  however,  has  proved  that  these  expressions 
are  confined  to  a few  detached  words  borrowed  from 
the  Raglai  dialect  and  used  by  the  Cham  to  com- 
municate with  them  alone. 

The  women  who  remain  behind  in  the  villages  are 
strictly  forbidden  to  quarrel  amongst  themselves 
while  their  husbands  are  away  looking  for  eagle- 
wood.  A breach  of  this  regulation  would  mean  that 
the  men  would  run  grave  risk  of  being  attacked  by 
tigers  or  bitten  by  serpents.  The  cynical,  however, 
assert  that  even  this  evil  possibility  is  insufficient  to 
preserve  harmony  in  the  village  ! 

While  I was  at  Malam  near  Phantiet  I was  present 
at  the  annual  festival  of  the  Cham  Bani  of  that 
village.  The  ceremony  is  known  as  “ Raja,”  a name 
which  is  also  applied  to  the  priestess  who  officiates. 

On  reaching  the  courtyard  of  the  compound  to 
which  I was  invited  I observed  a large  hut  and 
several  sheds  ornamented  with  branches  of  trees  on 
which  sheets  of  coarse  cotton  were  spread.  The  sheds 
served  to  accommodate  the  many  guests  who,  like  my- 
self, had  accepted  the  invitation  to  be  present  at  the 
festival.  The  hut  was  devoted  to  the  ceremonies  of 
ancestor-worship,  which  were  that  day  celebrated. 

This  building  faced  the  east.  On  entering  I 
immediately  noticed  at  the  back  of  the  room  a kind 
of  trough  serving  as  an  altar.  From  the  ceiling  hung 

20 


3o6  rites  and  superstitions 

paper  figures  of  boats,  carts,  animals  and  various 
domestic  objects.  In  the  middle  of  the  room, 
suspended  from  the  two  principal  beams,  was  a 
swing  with  its  seat  covered  with  brightly-coloured 
materials,  which  took  on  a strangely  gay  and  barbaric 
aspect  under  the  lights  of  many  little  candles. 

The  native  orchestra  comprised  a flute,  a stringed 
instrument  with  some  resemblance  to  a guitar,  gongs 
and  tambourines.  The  conductor,  who  seemed  to 
be  the  principal  performer,  also  improvised  on  a flat 
drum,  timing  his  melodious  drone  to  fill  the  intervals 
when  the  priestess  was  resting. 

The  latter,  clothed  in  a long  white  robe  and  with  a 
wreath  of  flowers  in  her  hair,  joined  with  an  assistant 
priest  in  the  steps  of  a saraband.  Together  they 
gave  vent  to  their  feelings  in  dancing,  singing, 
prayers,  imprecations,  tears,  grinding  of  teeth  and 
hypnotic  ecstasies,  all  with  the  object  of  appeasing 
the  shades  of  the  ancestors.  Suddenly  the  priestess 
seated  herself  on  the  swing  in  the  narrow  passage 
left  between  the  candles.  She  swung  herself  slowly 
to  and  fro,  running  her  hands  up  and  down  the 
supporting  ropes  and  droning  through  endless 
prayers.  When  she  had  finished  the  priest  followed 
her  example  and  went  through  the  same  rigmarole. 
So  curious  was  the  scene  that  I could  not  resist  the 
malevolent  idea  of  taking  a photograph  and  without 
reflection  I fired  a piece  of  magnesium  ribbon. 

Woe  to  me  for  my  impatience ! In  the  confusion 
which  followed  the  flash  both  I and  my  camera 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  307 

were  almost  upset.  I had  purposely  given  the 
company  no  notice  of  my  intention  in  order  to 
avoid  the  “ posing  ” which  self-conscious  sitters 
cannot  avoid.  The  Faithful,  in  their  amazement, 
had  taken  the  sudden  apparition  as  an  emanation  of 
the  Gods  themselves.  Something  more  than  explana- 
tions was  necessary  to  allay  the  general  alarm,  and 
it  was  only  after  a generous  distribution  of  tobacco 
that  I was  able  to  restore  some  measure  of  harmony. 

The  religious  celebrations  lasted  three  days,  inter- 
spersed with  feasts  and  other  diversions,  notably  an 
acrobatic  display  by  a performer  who  roused  his 
audience  to  a frenzy  of  enthusiasm.  At  the  beginning 
of  each  feast  a priest  called  all  the  deities  by  name 
and  executed  the  movements  of  a dance  in  their 
honour.  These  evolutions  are  an  invitation  to  the 
divinities  to  take  their  place  in  the  celebrations. 

At  dawn  on  the  second  day  the  priestess  filled  with 
cakes  and  fruit  a toy  boat  hollowed  out  of  the  trunk 
of  a banana-tree  by  some  ingenious  artisan.  In  this 
frail  canoe  a rag  monkey  was  placed,  squatting  on  its 
haunches  in  a very  grotesque  position.  The  boat  was 
meant  to  commemorate  the  vessel  which  in  former 
days  came  from  China  every  three  years  to  fetch  the 
tribute  exacted  from  a vassal  state. 

After  this  the  roysterers  fell  upon  the  improvised 
temple  and  hacked  it  to  pieces  amongst  general 
rejoicings. 

The  next  day,  by  way  of ‘applying  the  closure  to 
the  festivities,  the  whole  crowd,  headed  by  the  priest 

20* 


3o8  rites  and  superstitions 

and  priestess,  marched  to  a neighbouring  canal,  taking 
the  symbolical  boat  with  them.  While  the  orchestra 
poured  forth  an  unmelodious  symphony  the  lilliputian 
vessel  was  entrusted  to  the  waters,  in  which  it 
speedily  filled  and  disappeared. 

There  are  strong  resemblances  between  this  Cham 
ceremony  and  the  celebrations  in  India  which  mark 
the  changes  of  the  monsoon.  In  this  latter  country 
travellers  find  the  same  gaily  bedecked  sheds,  the 
same  rude  figures  cut  out  of  paper,  and  the  same 
swing  scene.  The  Hindus  regard  the  backward 
and  forward  movement  of  the  swing  as  a symbol 
of  the  movements  of  the  seasons. 

Most  of  the  rites  which  obtain  among  the  Cham, 
in  fact,  recall  the  ritual  observances  of  the  Vedic  and 
Brahminic  religions,  of  which  the  following  are 
among  the  most  characteristic  features. 

The  place  selected  for  the  crowning  act  of  sacrifice, 
“ Devayajana,”  is  always  an  open  space,  whether  at 
a cross-roads  or  in  an  enclosure.  The  improvised 
temple  is  made  of  branches  or  clods  of  earth  and  is 
invariably  destroyed  by  the  worshippers  after  the 
solemn  ceremony  is  over. 

Each  sacrifice  is  regarded  as  the  conclusion  of  a treaty 
between  the  gods  and  mortals.  The  value  of  the  offering 
is  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the  favours  desired. 
Most  sacrifices  are  for  heat  or  rain,  two  necessaries  of  life 
without  which  neither  health  nor  prosperity  is  possible. 

The  officiating  priest  and  his  bodyguard  of  acolytes 
are  housed  and  fed  at  the  expense  of  the  “ Yajamana,” 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  309 

the  individual  for  whose  ultimate  benefit  the  bene- 
volence of  the  gods  is  solicited.  I ought  to  add  that 
the  previous  life  and  blamelessness  of  this  person  have 
nothing  to  do  with  the  efficacy  of  the  sacrifice.  On 
the  contrary,  the  only  thing  that  matters  is  the  exact, 
punctilious  observance  of  the  rite  itself. 

It  is  plain  that  intellect  plays  little  part  in  these 
religious  ceremonies.  Throughout,  each  act  is  designed 
to  fire  the  imagination  and  arouse  the  emotions, 
rather  than  carry  conviction. 

It  is  equally  certain  that  rites  of  undoubted 
Dravidian  origin  are  to  be  observed  among  the  Cham. 
The  common  denominator  of  all  the  religions  of 
India  is  the  worship  of  divinities  personifying  the 
earth  or  the  elements,  generally  in  the  shape  of  a 
woman,  and  almost  always  considered  malevolent. 

Horrible  sacrifices  are  offered  to  appease  them,  and 
the  religious  ceremonies  usually  terminate  in  the 
most  abandoned  orgies.  The  presiding  priest,  or 
“ Devil  Dancer,”  after  a series  of  frantic  contortions, 
falls  to  the  ground  in  a hypnotic  trance,  during  which 
the  incoherent  expressions  that  fall  from  his  lips  are 
greedily  noted  and  repeated  by  the  Faithful,  who 
regard  them  as  the  words  of  Divinity  itself. 

For  a last  example  there  are  certain  fetes,  such  as 
the  “ Durgapuja  ” in  Bengal,  marked  by  buffoonery 
and  pantomime,  in  which  the  worshippers  conclude 
the  ceremonies  by  carrying  a statue  of  the  goddess 
in  procession  to  the  river  banks,  and  casting  it  into 
the  waters  to  the  strains  of  an  ear-shattering  orchestra. 


CHAPTER  V 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  {continued) 

Burial  rites — Philology — Legends  and  fables. 

exorcisms  of  the  “ Padjao  ” directed  towards 
* expelling  disease  from  the  bodies  of  the  Cham 
are  too  similar  to  those  of  the  Moi  sorceress  to  merit 
description,  which  would  be  little  more  than  repetition. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  burial  rites  of  the  Kaphir 
Cham  are  highly  characteristic. 

Children  who  die  before  the  age  of  puberty,  and 
therefore  not  initiated  into  the  full  rights  and  mys- 
teries of  manhood,  are  buried  in  the  earth,  while 
adults  of  both  sexes  are  cremated.  The  reason  for 
this  distinction  is  not  far  to  seek.  The  adults  are 
regarded  as  a class  set  apart  with  its  own  complex 
of  funeral  rites  and  observances.  Further,  those  who 
die  while  still  of  tender  years  die  in  innocence  and 
need  no  such  purification  from  their  sins  as  is  implied 
in  the  practice  of  submitting  the  bodies  of  their  elders 
to  the  scourge  of  fire. 

After  death  the  spirits  of  the  little  ones  are  sup- 
posed to  dwell  in  the  bodies  of  rats,  and  their  memory 
is  perpetuated  from  time  to  time  by  ceremonies  in 
which  the  head  of  the  family,  clad  in  a new  robe  for 

310 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  31 1 

the  occasions,  makes  offerings,  waves  his  hands  in  the 
air  to  imitate  the  movements  of  a bird,  performs 
certain  mystical  passes,  and  puts  a red  flower  in  a 
bronze  vase. 

The  burial  rites  which  are  still  practised  by  the 
Kaphir  Cham  of  Phanrang  and  Phanry  serve  as  ex- 
cellent comments  on  the  duties  of  the  priest  in  case 
of  the  death  of  any  inhabitant  of  a village. 

The  fundamental  notion  on  which  all  the 
observances  are  based  is  that  the  soul  of  the  deceased 
must  have  a new  body  in  which  it  may  take  refuge 
after  the  loss  of  its  earthly  dwelling-place.  All  the 
ceremonies  are  designed  to  create  this  new  body. 
It  is  universally  agreed  that  rice  alone  can  operate 
the  necessary  transformation,  and  as  the  rice  must 
be  of  the  finest  quality  procurable,  each  family  pre- 
serves the  best  stalks  from  the  harvest  and  lays  them 
up  in  anticipation  of  a death. 

When  the  dread  moment  arrives  the  selected 
grains  are  mixed  in  a bowl  into  which  a gold  ring, 
symbol  of  immortality,  has  been  dropped.  The 
priest  now  glues  a few  grains  together  with  melted 
wax  to  form  a soft  round  ball,  which  is  introduced 
under  the  dead  man’s  tongue.  A few  mystical  passes, 
and  the  soul  leaves  its  old  shell  for  the  new  aetherial 
body  thus  called  into  existence.  The  next  and  last 
step  is  to  give  the  soul  its  necessary  directions.  These 
depend  upon  the  manner  of  life  of  the  deceased. 
Virtuous  men  are  sent  to  the  sun,  women  against 
whom  there  is  no  reproach  to  the  moon.  If  the  credit 


312  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

and  debit  items  of  a man’s  moral  account  balance 
out  he  is  dispatched  to  the  planets.  The  wicked 
are  dispersed  among  the  clouds,  as  are  also  the  poor 
and  lowly,  an  inequitable  disposition  worthy  of  a 
theocracy  ! 

The  actual  ceremony  of  cremation  follows  after  a 
period  which  is  determined  by  the  state  of  the  corpse 
and  the  financial  position  of  the  deceased’s  family. 
From  the  moment  of  death  to  the  cremation  custom 
exacts  that  all  visitors  to  the  family  should  be  housed 
and  fed  at  the  expense  of  the  relations.  These 
visitors  come  to  keep  the  deceased  company  and 
pretend  to  entertain  him  by  their  wit  and  conver- 
sation. They  also  cheer  up  the  relations  and  do 
their  best  to  keep  sorrow  at  a convenient  distance. 

The  family  build  a special  shed  under  which  the 
corpse  is  laid,  after  having  been  dressed  in  eight  robes, 
one  over  the  other.  Thus  swathed  in  white  linen 
the  body  looks  exactly  like  a package  with  the  head, 
covered  with  a thin  veil,  emerging  from  one  end. 
It  is  strictly  forbidden  to  offer  any  nourishment  to 
the  deceased  before  he  leaves  his  own  house.  The 
bed  on  which  the  corpse  is  laid  is  turned  towards 
the  south  and  surmounted  by  a kind  of  canopy  from 
which  hang  birds  cut  out  of  paper.  It  seems  that 
the  function  of  this  winged  escort  is  to  conduct 
the  soul  to  its  future  home.  Clumps  of  hemp  and 
various  foods  are  strewn  around  the  bier  and  the  walls 
of  the  shed  are  hung  with  martial  trophies. 

Three  times  a day  the  priestess  prepares  a meal 


Photo  6y] 


Cremation  in  Cambodia  : The  Head  of  the  Procession. 


lA.  Cabaton, 


Photo  6y]  [.-1 . Cabaton. 

A Catafalque  upon  which  several  Bodies  are  being  carried  away  for  Cremation. 


[To  lace  p.  312. 


Photo  by'\  [/I . Cabaion. 

The  Hearse  and  Bearers  at  an  Annamese  Funeral. 


Photo*by'\ 


lA . Caba*on. 


The  Altar  of  his  Ancestors  \vhich  accompanies  the  Deceased. 


\To  face  p.  313, 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  313 

for  the  deceased.  An  orchestra  plays  from  morning 
to  night  almost  without  intermission.  It  is  soon 
plain  that  this  lying-in-state,  so  far  from  being  a 
rite  of  mourning,  is  more  like  a festival.  The  guests 
consume  enormous  quantities  of  food  and  drink,  and 
only  the  unfortunate  relations  are  under  ban  to  refrain 
from  meat  until  after  the  cremation. 

When  at  length  the  great  day  arrives  the  priests 
construct  a catafalque  adorned  with  paper  figures, 
the  mourners  line  up  in  procession  behind,  and  all 
proceed  to  the  appointed  place.  Every  villager  dons 
his  white  scarf — white  being  the  colour  of  mourning 
— brandishes  a spear,  sword,  or  flag,  and  joins  in 
the  cortege.  The  bearers  perform  the  most  remark- 
able evolutions  with  the  body,  carrying  it  now  feet 
first,  now  head  first,  or  turning  it  round  and  round 
in  order  to  confuse  the  spirit  and  prevent  it  from 
finding  its  way  back.  This  essential  object  is  also 
secured  by  a priest,  known  on  these  occasions  as 
“ P6  Damoeun,”  “ Lord  of  Sorrow,”  who  remains 
in  the  house  of  the  deceased,  shuts  himself  in,  and 
calls  on  every  object,  animate  and  inanimate,  to  pre- 
vent the  soul  from  entering  and  molesting  the  living. 

When  the  funeral  procession  is  within  a hundred 
yards  from  the  exit  from  the  village  a priest  takes  a 
spade  and  marks  out  the  spot  destined  for  the  funeral 
pyre.  Wood  is  brought  and  piled  up  and  the  corpse 
is  stripped  of  its  wrappings  and  offered  its  last  meal. 
As  soon  as  the  flames  break  out  the  clothes  of  the 
deceased  are  thrown  into  them.  Now  comes  the 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


314 

moment,  marked  by  the  passage  of  the  soul  to  the 
life  beyond,  when  the  living  send  gifts  to  their  dead 
relations.  Each  man  writes  his  list  of  presents  on  a 
slip  of  paper  and  then  burns  it.  The  list  is  ex- 
haustive, including  such  homely  and  necessary 
articles  as  a pipe,  spittoon  and  the  inevitable  receptacle 
for  betel  and  lime.  Even  underclothing  and  small 
change  are  not  forgotten.  During  the  progress  of 
the  conflagration  the  spectators  joke  and  chatter 
together,  leaving  the  serious  business  of  desolation 
to  the  hired  mourners,  who  weep  aloud  and  tear  their 
hair.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  ceremony  the  frontal 
bone  of  the  deceased  is  carefully  broken  in  nine 
pieces,  which  are  collected  in  a metal  box,  the 
“ klong,”  a special  kind  of  urn.  Every  man  pro- 
vides himself  with  one  of  these  receptacles  in  anticipa- 
tion of  his  own  death,  but  the  usual  practice  is  to  con- 
ceal it  in  some  place  known  only  to  his  family,  as  it  is 
not  altogether  pleasant  to  be  perpetually  reminded 
of  the  terror  to  come. 

The  fragments  of  bone  are  now  subjected  to  a 
long  and  tedious  process  of  purification,  after  which 
they  are  buried  at  the  foot  of  a tree,  which  is  carefully 
noted,  as  being  only  a temporary  depository.  For 
the  next  seven  years  on  each  anniversary  the  family 
dig  up  the  box,  carry  it  back  to  their  house,  and- offer 
sacrifices  in  its  honour.  After  the  seventh  year  the 
interment  is  permanent.  A spot  is  chosen  near  to 
the  best  of  the  family  ricefields,  trees  are  planted 
round  it,  and  a tombstone  is  erected. 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  315 

Sometimes  the  rites  require  that  for  the  first  inter- 
ment the  “ klong  ” of  a man  and  a woman  must 
be  used  together.  It  follows  that  in  small  families 
where  many  years  may  elapse  between  the  deaths  of 
its  members  the  first  “ klong  ” runs  a great  risk  of 
exceeding  its  seven  compulsory  years  of  waiting  before 
reaching  its  final  resting-place. 

The  direction  in  which  the  urn  is  placed  varies 
with  the  sex  of  the  deceased.  The  “ klong  ” of  a 
woman  points  to  the  west,  that  of  a man  to  the 
east. 

I have  described  these  rites  at  some  length  on 
account  of  their  intrinsic  interest,  but  it  would  be 
illuminating  to  compare  them  with  similar  ceremonies 
obtaining  among  other  groups. 

The  Man  Quan  Trang,  or  “ white-breeched  ” 
Man  of  Tonkin,  bury  the  hair  and  portions  of  the 
nails  and  bones  in  a different  place  from  that  of  the 
corpse  itself.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  these  frag- 
ments are  considered  the  abode  of  the  Material  Soul 
and  the  Vital  Spirits. 

The  Bouriates  of  Siberia  bury  some  of  the  bones 
of  their  priests  at  the  foot  of  a tree. 

The  Egyptians  made  a set  speech  to  their  dead,  in 
which  they  gave  directions  for  the  guidance  of  the 
soul  to  the  distant  regions,  and  enumerated  a list 
of  necessary  articles  to  accompany  it.  The  recita- 
tion of  these  articles  dispensed  with  the  necessity 
of  furnishing  them.  • The  will  was  thus  considered 
as  good  as  the  deed. 


3i6  rites  and  superstitions 

Lastly  the  funeral  rites  I have  described  find 
analogies  among  the  Laotians  and  the  peoples  of  Cam- 
bodia. Here  also  a death  is  celebrated  as  a happy 
event,  as  being  merely  a step  to  a new  existence  far 
more  blessed  than  the  life  on  earth.  The  face  of  the 
corpse  is  covered  with  a mask  in  gold  leaf  which  is 
moulded  to  the  features,  and  the  process  of  decom- 
position is  retarded  by  the  introduction  of  mercury. 
The  catafalque  is  large  or  small  according  to  the 
social  position  of  the  deceased.  A king,  for  example, 
has  a regular  monument  known  as  the  “Men.”  A 
Minister  of  State  or  a High  Priest  is  honoured  with 
a rather  smaller  edifice,  while  those  of  humble  estate 
have  to  be  content  with  a simple  pyramid.  A large 
white  cloth  is  hung  over  the  catafalque,  of  which 
the  opening  is  guarded  by  a small  figure  in  the 
mask  of  a monkey.  This  is  “ Yeac,”  a subject  of 
Couvera,  the  God  of  Riches,  whose  statue  adorns 
every  place  where  a mystical  transformation  is  to  be 
accomplished.  The  quaint  figure  holds  in  its  hand 
a reel  of  white  cotton,  of  which  one  end  is  secured  to 
the  coffin  and  which  will  guide  the  soul  after  it  has 
left  the  body.  The  torch  which  fires  the  funeral 
pyre  is  lit  at  a brasier  which  contains  the  sacred 
embers  which  must  never  be  extinguished.  When 
cremation  is  complete  the  bones  are  collected  into  a 
box  made  of  precious  metal,  which  is  buried  under  a 
tower,  the  height  of  which  varies  with  the  wealth  of 
the  deceased. 

All  these  rites,  however  much  they  vary  among 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  317 

themselves  in  detail,  seem  to  be  based  on  the  same 
popular  ideas  of  the  significance  of  death. 


Like  ourselves,  the  Cham  write  from  left  to  right. 
Their  alphabet  varies  in  different  regions.  In  Cam- 
bodia it  comprises  four  vowels,  two  diphthongs,  and 
twenty-nine  consonants.  In  Annam  there  are  five 
short  vowels,  five  long  vowels,  and  four  diphthongs. 
Both  of  these  alphabets  have  two  special  signs  which 
correspond  to  the  “Anusvara”  and  “Visarga”  of 
Sanscrit.  There  are  also  certain  signs  usually  em- 
ployed in  conjunction  with  the  vowels  which  influence 
their  pronunciation.  With  the  exception  of  the 
figures  4 and  o the  numerals  are  only  a modified 
form  of  the  letters. 

The  popular  pen  is  a short  bamboo  cut  to  a point 
and  manipulated  like  a paint-brush.  The  European 
pen  is,  however,  coming  into  fashion  with  the 
progress  of  Western  ideas. 

In  Cambodia  manuscripts  are  written  in  a beauti- 
ful free  hand  on  paper  of  Western  form  and  manu- 
facture. On  the  other  hand,  the  Cham  of  Annam 
use  sheets  of  rice-paper  of  tremendous  size  im- 
ported from  China.  Occasionally  the  traveller  meets 
with  inscriptions  made  with  a needle  on  palm- 
leaves. 

The  priests  of  Annam  employ  a hieratic  writing, 
which  they  call  “ Akhar  Rik,”  especially  for  such 
purposes  as  engraving  magical  in  :riptions  on  amulets. 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


318 

A secret  system  and  an  abbreviated  system  are  also 
used  when  occasion  requires. 

A curious  feature  of  their  books  is  that  the  authors 
display  a tendency  to  coin  new  words  from  Sanscrit 
or  Arabic  roots  even  when  the  idea  expressed  in  those 
roots  has  only  the  remotest  similarity  to  the  meaning 
they  wish  the  word  to  convey. 

The  Cham  Bani  of  Phanrang  are  the  proud  pos- 
sessors of  the  manuscript  of  a Bible,  the  text  of  which 
has  been  modified  in  many  places  by  Mohammedan 
influence.  The  truth  of  this  will  be  demonstrated 
from  the  examples  translated  by  Father  Durand. 

“ This  Book  tells  the  story  of  the  beginnings  of 
Earth  and  Heaven.  . . . The  creation  of  the  Sun 
God  and  the  Moon  Goddess.  The  Lord  Uwlwah 
— Allah — then  created  the  P6  Adam  and  the  woman 
Hawa,  whom  he  took  from  the  man’s  side.  . . . 
Their  children  numbered  nine  and  ninety,  an  equal  (!) 
number  of  boys  and  girls.  They  died  in  the  Kingdom 
of  Judah.” 

Then  follow  the  story  of  the  flood,  the  lives  of 
Abraham  and  David,  without  conspicuous 
discrepancies. 

“ The  son  of  Nabi  Dalawat — Daoud,  David — (the 
Cham  have  no  final  d)  was  called  the  Nabi  Suleiman 
— Solomon.  Allah  commanded  him  to  build  the 
Caabah — temple — and  gave  him  a mountain  of  gold 
and  silver.  Suleiman  covered  the  walls  of  his  Caabah 
with  these  precious  metals  and  it  became  wondrously 
beautiful.  He  was  appointed  Chief  of  the  Priests 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  319 

therein.  . . . Then  Nabi  Esa — Issa,  Jesus — was  born 
in  the  country  of  Baitelem  and  him  Allah  took 
to  himself.  . . . Then  Mohammat — Mahomet — for 
forty  years  decreed  all  the  Doctrine  in  the  Kingdom 
of  Makah — Mecca — and  died  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Madjanah — Medina.  . . . Then  Adam  and  Hawa 
produced  the  seven  Royalties.  The  sum  of  these 
seven  epochs  gives  the  total  of  7306  years  to  the 
cyclic  year  of  the  Tiger.  . . . 

“ That  is  all.  . . .” 

The  Cham,  like  the  Kmer,  have  taken  little  trouble 
over  the  composition  of  their  legends  and  fables. 

Apart  from  certain  legends  which  by  internal 
evidence  and  local  flavour  can  only  be  regarded  as 
having  originated  among  the  Cham,  all  the  others 
are  more  or  less  successful  adaptations  of  Hindu  tales. 
In  almost  all  countries,  and  conspicuously  in  the 
Far  East,  popular  fancy  fastens  and  feeds  on  the 
fabulous,  or,  at  least,  incredibly  romantic,  adventures 
of  the  ancient  Kings.  It  is  at  least  true  to  say  that 
these  adventures  furnish  a canvas  on  which  imagina- 
tion has  worked  wondrous  pictures. 

The  origin  of  the  special  tight-fitting  costume 
worn  by  the  Cham  women  is  explained  on  this  wise. 

In  the  darkness  of  the  Past  a Cham  Prince  named 
Hon  Hoi  declared  war  on  a Laotian  Princess,  whose 
ricefields  he  coveted.  In  accordance  with  the  cus- 
toms of  the  women  of  her  race,  the  Princess,  Diep 
Lieu,  was  arrayed  in  nothing  more  than  a scanty 
covering  of  bamboo  fibres.  The  barbarity  and 


320 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


ignorance  of  her  subjects  was  incredible.  All  buying 
and  selling  went  on  by  night,  and  in  the  darkness 
it  was  impossible  to  determine  the  quality  of  the 
wares  displayed  except  by  their  fine  smeU.  The 
Prince  had  no  difficulty  in  overwhelming  her  forces 
and  making  her  his  prisoner.  But  she  found  favour 
in  his  sight,  and  within  a short  time  she  exchanged 
captivity  for  freedom  and  honour  as  his  wife.  The 
Prince,  however,  was  shocked  at  the  summary  attire 
of  his  betrothed  and  for  the  wedding-day  he  gave 
her  a costume  of  his  own  making.  This  was  a kind 
of  sack,  at  the  top  of  which  was  a narrow  hole  for  the 
head  to  come  through.  The  Cham  also  honour 
the  thesis  that  imitation  is  the  sincerest  form  of 
flattery,  so  the  women  adopted  this  new  mode  with 
avidity,  and  it  has  survived  all  the  attacks  of  time  and 
feminine  caprice. 

A legend  has  gathered  round  each  of  the  kings 
who  has  been  raised  to  the  ranks  of  divinity  by 
the  Cham.  P6  Klong  Garai  was  born  of  a Virgin 
Mother,  P6  Sah  Ineu,  who  rose  alive  from  the  waves. 
Though  hardly  yet  a woman  she  conceived  her  son 
while  sipping  water  from  a stream  which  flowed 
through  a rock.  The  child  was  smitten  with  the 
horror  of  leprosy  from  birth.  While  he  rested  near 
a rock,  a dragon  emerged  from  a cavern,  licked  the 
sores  caused  by  the  fell  disease,  and  the  child  was 
immediately  cured.  From  that  day  he  felt  himself 
endowed  with  matchless  celestial  powers  On  one 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


321 


occasion,  when  about  to  make  a distant  journey,  and 
at  a loss  for  a receptacle  in  which  to  carry  water 
he  saw  a pumpkin. 

At  the  first  touch  of  his  hand  the  fruit  broke  its 
stalk  and  offered  its  services  as  a gourd.  When  this 
magician  became  King  he  built  several  dams  in  the 
valley  of  Phanrang  and  turned  an  arid  desert  into  a 
fertile  plain.  So  great  were  his  services  to  his  people 
that  finally  the  gods  rewarded  him  by  calling  him  to 
be  one  of  themselves. 

Hardly  less  humble  in  origin  than  this  prince  was 
P6  Rome.  He  also  was  born  of  a 'Virgin  Mother, 
whom  the  family  drove  from  their  doors  in  horror 
at  the  alleged  crime.  Nature,  too,  was  not  more 
kindly  to  the  tiny  bastard,  who  had  neither  arms  nor 
legs  and  rolled  over  the  ground  like  a cocoa-nut  (a 
peculiarity  from  which  he  soon  took  that  name). 
In  spite  of  his  deformity,  however,  the  reigning 
sovereign  praised  him  to  his  mother  and  appointed 
him  to  guard  the  cattle.  Destiny  was  watching  over 
him  and  a Dragon  soon  appeared  to  teH  him  of  all 
the  glories  the  future  had  in  store.  Warned  of  the 
approaching  miracle  by  the  court  astrologers,  the 
King  set  himself  to  win  the  regard  of  one  who  might 
one  day  prove  a formidable  rival  to  himself.  He 
finally  decided  to  abdicate  in  the  young  man’s  favour 
and  added  to  his  benefits  by  giving  him  the  hand  of 
his  daughter  in  marriage  and  two  other  wives  of  the 
second  and  third  degree.  But  Cocoa-nut  was  not 
happy  even  with  his  three  wives.  Hardly  had  he 


21 


322 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 


ascended  the  throne  than  he  lost  his  crown  through 
the  artifices  of  his  second  wife.  This  lady  was  the 
daughter  of  the  King  of  Annam  who  coveted  his 
neighbour’s  lands  and  was  not  above  treachery  to 
secure  them.  At  this  time  the  tutelary  deity  of  the 
Cham  was  shut  up  in  the  trunk  of  a tree,  known  as 
the  “ Kraik,”  and  so  long  as  this  tree  was  alive  no 
misfortune  could  befall  the  race  beneath  its  aegis. 
The  second  wife,  adopting  the  counsel  of  her  evil 
father,  pretended  to  be  smitten  with  a grave  malady. 
She  refused  all  cures  and  asserted  that  her  only  jiope 
was  the  destruction  of  the  Kraik.  Cocoa-nut,  who 
had  a strong  affection  for  this  wife,  had  her  carefully 
examined  by  the  four  most  eminent  medicine-men 
of  his  kingdom.  All  four  agreed  that  the  illness 
was  a sham,  and  all  four  paid  for  their  truthfulness 
with  their  heads.  Meanwhile  the  lady’s  condition 
seemed  to  go  from  bad  to  worse,  and  the  King 
decided  to  fell  with  his  own  hand  the  tree  on  which 
hung  the  destinies  of  his  people.  Streams  of  blood 
flowed  from  the  smitten  trunk  and  soaked  the  ground 
around.  The  King  had  not  long  to  wait  for  retri- 
bution. Betrayed  by  his  treacherous  spouse,  his 
kingdom  was  wrested  from  him  and  he  was  hacked 
in  pieces  by  his  triumphant  foe.  His  incisors  alone 
were  restored  to  his  first  wife  that  she  might  pay 
the  honour  due  to  his  remains.  The  ex-Cocoa-nut, 
become  P6  Rome,  now  dwells  among  the  Gods,  but 
even  there,  it  seems,  his  domestic  tribulations  have 
pursued  him,  and  he  is  often  glad,  when  distracted  by 


RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS  323 

the  factious  quarrels  of  his  womenfolk,  to  get  away 
from  his  palace  and  leave  it  to  them. 

The  Cham  have  a certain  partiality  for  songs  and 
lyrical  poems  not  destitute  of  taste  and  feeling  have 
acquired  popularity  among  them.  A romance  which 
the  girls  of  Phanrang  sing  on  their  fishing  expedi- 
tions is  as  follows  : 

“ Do  you  go  forth  to  set  sail,  my  Lord,  that  you 
look  at  the  leaves  for  the  direction  of  the  wind  ? 
Ibrahim,  my  soul  of  gold  . . . hard  would  it  be 
if  you  left  me.  . . . 

“ Pity  your  little  sister  fair  as  gold  itself  ! Do  not 
leave  her,  like  an  orphan,  to  wander  in  the  forests 
where  fear  and  danger  lurk.  . . . 

“ You  will  stay  ! Oh  joy  ! Life  will  be  naught  but 
play  and  laughter  and  walks  together,  hand  in  hand  ! ” 

Finally,  there  is  the  skeleton,  not  much  more,  of  a 
literature.  Here  are  some  extracts  from  a bedside 
book  which  all  girls  are  supposed  to  study  before 
making  their  own  homes. 

“ Liver  and  Bile  of  thy  mother,  approach,  my 
child,  and  learn  what  a woman  should  know. 

“ When  thou  speakest  with  thy  husband,  let  thy 
tone  above  all  be  modest. 

“ Strive  not  to  appear  superior  or  even  as  his  equal, 
for  the  man  it  is  who  should  lead  the  woman. 

“ My  child,  the  boat  will  not  leave  its  moorings 
if  the  stake  is  solid  and  secure  ! In  a family  the 
husband  is  the  keystone  of  the  structure  ! 


324  RITES  AND  SUPERSTITIONS 

“ The  honour  he  gains  goes  to  the  credit  of  his  wife. 

“ My  daughter,  ever  remember  that  the  happiness 
of  a household  lies  in  the  hands  of  the  wife.  She 
must  not  waste  the  goods  he  entrusts  to  her. 

“ Waste  not  then  the  least  trifle.  See  that 
every  door  has  always  its  bolt.  . . . Follow  these 
precepts  and  wert  thou  as  hideous  as  an  ape  thou 
shalt  keep  the  love  of  thy  husband,  for  thy  presence 
shall  be  more  profitable  to  him  than  a bar  of  gold,  were 
it  the  height  of  a cocoa-nut  tree.  . . .” 

Of  such  homely  advice  consists  the  very  ancient 
manuscript  which  Moura  translated  and  which  escaped 
the  wreck  in  which  all  the  others  were  lost. 

I expect  modern  young  ladies  will  find  these 
mother’s  words  somewhat  out  of  date.  But  what 
European  husband  would  not  occasionally  envy  the 
Cham  so  perfect  a partner  ? 


THE  END 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

I HAVE  kept  the  scientific  side  of  my  researches  in  the  back- 
ground in  this  book,  but  the  curious  may  consult  the  following 
works  with  advantage  : 


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Barthelemy,  de,  “ Au  pays  Moi.”  Paris,  Plon  Nourrit, 
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Bergaigne,  a.,  “ L’Ancien  Royaume  du  Champa  dans 
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Cabaton,  Antoine,  “ Nouvelles  recherches  sur  les  Chams.” 
Paris,  Leroux,  1901  ; “ Notes  sur  les  sources  europeennes 
de  I’histoire  de  I’Indochine,”  in  Bulletin  de  la  Com- 
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Malais  et  I’avenir  de  leur  langue,”  in  Revue  du  Monde 
Musulman.  Paris,  1908 ; “ Les  Chams  musulmans 

de  rindochine,”  in  Revue  du  Monde  Musulman.  Paris, 
1907. 

Cadiere,  Le  Pere,  “ Croyances  et  dictons  populaires  de 
la  vallee  du  Nguon  Son,”  in  Bulletin  de  I’icole  Fjran- 
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Crawley,  E.,  “ The  Mystic  Rose.”  London,  Macmillan, 
1902. 


325 


326  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Cremazy,  “ Le  droit  coutumier  de  I’Extreme  Orient  a 
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CuMONT,  Franz,  “ Les  Religions  Orientales  dans  le  paganisme 
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Diguet,  Le  Colonel  E.,  “ Les  montagnards  du  Tonkin.” 
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Dourisboure,  Le  Pere,  “ Les  sauvages  Bahnars.”  Paris, 
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Dulaure,  J.  a.,  “ Les  divinites  generatrices,  ou  du  culte  du 
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A new  edition  by  the  Societe  du  Mercure  de  France. 
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Durand,  Le  Pere,  “ Les  Moi  du  Song  Phang,”  in  B.  G.  D.  H. 
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in  B.  E.  F.  E.  0.  Hanoi,  1907. 

Fillastre,  Le  P^:re  Adrien,  “ Bois  d’aigle  et  bois  d’aloes,” 
in  Revue  Indochinoise.  Hanoi,  1905. 

Finot,  Louis,  “ La  Religion  des  Chams  d’apres  les  monu- 
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d’Histoire  et  de  Philologie  Indochinoises  professe  au 
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Foucart,  George,  “ Histoire  des  Religions  et  Methode 
Comparative.”  Paris,  Picard,  1912. 
v/"Frazer,  “The  Golden  Bough.”  London,  Macmillan, 
1900. 

Garnier,  F.,  “Voyage  d’exploration  en  I’Indochine.”  Paris, 
Hachette,  1873. 

Gennep,  Arnold  van,  “ Religions,  Moeurs  et  L^endes.” 
Paris,  Mercure  de  France,  4 vols.  1908  a 1911  ; “ Mythes 
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327 


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Hutereau,  a.,  “ Notes  sur  la  vie  familiale  et  juridique 
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Joyce,  T.  A.,  “ Notes  ethnographiques  sur  les  peuples 
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Keane,  A.  H.,  “ On  the  Relations  of  the  Indo-Chinese  and 
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Kemlin,  Le  P.,  “ Les  rites  agraires  des  Reungao,”  in 
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Landes,  A.,  “ Legende  djarai  sur  I’origine  du  sabre  sacre 
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Lefevre,  Pontalis,  “ Notes  sur  Pecriture  des  Khas,”  in 
L' Anthropologie.  Paris,  1892  ; “ Notes  sur  quelques 

populations  du  Nord  de  I’Indochine,”  in  Journal 
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Lemire,  Ch.,  “ Les  anciens  monuments  des  Kiams  en  Annam 
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Printed  at  The  Chapel  River  Press,  Kingston,  Surrey. 


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